Gramatika pa inglish
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== The alphabet and pronounciation == | == The alphabet and pronounciation == | ||
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may ''(my)'' – my, | may ''(my)'' – my, | ||
ley ''(lay)'' – their | ley ''(lay)'' – their | ||
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=== Consonants === | === Consonants === | ||
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The combination '''ng''' is pronounced as the English ng: bruing ''(brewing)'' – brewing | The combination '''ng''' is pronounced as the English ng: bruing ''(brewing)'' – brewing | ||
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=== Word stress === | === Word stress === | ||
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- nouns formed from verbs: lOpi / lOping – run / running | - nouns formed from verbs: lOpi / lOping – run / running | ||
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| − | + | == Simple sentence == | |
| − | 1. | + | 1. Word order in a clause: subject – predicate – object (usually) |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) lubi (to love) yu (you). – I love you.'' | |
| − | + | To mark the change of the word order special particles are used: | |
a) da (before the subject) | a) da (before the subject) | ||
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b) den (before the object): | b) den (before the object): | ||
| − | + | - ''Lubi (to love) da me (I). – I love.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Den yu (you) me (I) lubi (to love). – I love you. It's you whom I love.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | 2. | + | 2. Word order in a phrase: adjective is before a noun (usually). |
| − | + | - ''Es (is/are) may (my) syao (little) son (son). – That's my little son.'' | |
| + | To emphasize the adjective, it can be placed after the noun. | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) pri (to like) elay (her) gran (big) okos (eyes) blu (blue). – I like her big blue eyes.'' | |
| − | + | ||
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3. Predicative adjectives and nominals | 3. Predicative adjectives and nominals | ||
| − | + | - ''May (my) mata (mother) es (is) talimer (teacher). – My mother is a teacher.'' | |
| − | + | - ''May (my) sista (sister) yao (to want) bikam (to become) leker (doctor). – My sister wants to become a doctor.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) gela (girl) es (is) muy (very) jamile (beautiful). – This girl is very beautiful.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) jamile (beautiful) hir (here). – It's beautiful here.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 4. Impersonal sentence (without the subject) | |
| − | + | - ''Pluvi (to rain) gro (much). – It rains / is raining much.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Treba (it's necessary) shwo (to talk). – It's necessary to talk.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) garme (hot). – It's hot.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | 5. | + | 5. Negation: negation particle bu is placed before the verb group. |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) bu (not) somni (to sleep). – He doesn't sleep / isn't sleeping.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) bu (not) wud (would) yao (to want) resti (to remain) dar (there). – I won't stay there.'' | |
| − | + | If there is at least one negative word in the phrase, the whole phrase gets a negative meaning. If there are several of them, that only emphasizes the negative meaning. | |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) bu (not) samaji (to understand) nixa (nothing), neva (never)! – He doesn't understand anything, ever!'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 6. General question: the particle '''ob''' (is placed before the phrase): | |
| − | + | - ''Ob yu (you) lubi (to love) me (I)? – Do you love me?'' | |
| − | + | Possible answers: '''ya''' (yes), '''non''' (no), '''doh''' | |
| − | + | a) Ob yu lubi me? – Ya, me lubi. Non, me bu lubi. – Do you love me? – Yes, I do. No, I don't. | |
| − | + | b) Ob yu bu lubi me? – Ya / non, me bu lubi. Doh, me lubi. – Don't you love me? – No, I don't. Yes, I do. | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | Other ways to make a general question: | |
| − | + | a) "'''bu ver'''?" (is placed after a phrase, with a comma): | |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) hao (good) meteo (weather), bu (not) ver (really)? – The weather is good, isn't it?'' | |
| − | + | Possible answers: '''ver''' (yes, it's true), '''bu es ver''' (no, it isn't true). | |
| − | + | b) Repeating of the verb with "bu" particle: | |
| − | + | - ''Yu lai-bu-lai? – Are you coming (or not)?'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | 7. | + | 7. Special question |
| − | + | In a special question the question word is put in the beginning of the phrase, the word order doesn't change. The inversion can occur only in the phrase with the verb "bi / es/ bin": Wo (where) es (is) may (my) kalam (pencil)? – Where is my pencil? | |
| − | + | '''hu''' – who: ''Hu (who) somni (to sleep)? – Who sleeps?'' | |
| − | + | '''kwo''' – what: ''Kwo (what) yu (you) vidi (to see)? – What do you see?'' | |
| − | + | '''kwel''' – what sort of, which: ''Kwel (what) flor (flower) yu (you) pri (to like)? – What flower do you like?'' | |
| − | + | '''komo''' – how: ''Komo (how) yu (you) zwo (to make) se (this)? – How do you make this / have you made this?'' | |
| − | + | '''way''' – why: ''Way (why) yu (you) bu (not) somni (to sleep)? – Why don't you sleep?'' | |
| − | + | '''wen''' – when: ''Wen (when) yu (you) lai (to come)? – When are you coming?'' | |
| − | + | '''wo''' – where: ''Wo (where) es (is) may (my) docha (daughter)? – Where is my daughter?'' | |
| − | + | '''a wo''' – where, to what direction: ''A wo (where) yu (you) yao (to want) go (to go)? – Where do you want to go?'' | |
| − | + | '''fon wo''' – where from: ''Fon wo (where from) yu (you) lai (to come)? – Where do you come from?'' | |
| − | + | '''kwanto''' – how many, how much: ''Kwanto (how many) bonbon (sweets) yu (you) he ("past tense") chi (to eat)? – How many sweets have you eaten?'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 8. Emphasizing of the whole phrase meaning: '''ya''' (before or after the predicate) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) ya lubi (to love) yu (you)! – I love you indeed!'' | |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) ya hao (good) dey (day)! – What a good day!'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| + | 9. Emphasizing of a single word: '''hi''' (in assertion), '''ku''' (in a question) | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) hi bu (not) yao (to want) somni (to sleep). – Personally I don't want to sleep.'' | |
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| + | - ''Yu (you) ku bu (not) yao (to want) somni (to sleep)? – Is it you who doesn't want to sleep?'' | ||
== Compound Sentence == | == Compound Sentence == | ||
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1. The sentence topic: one can specialize the topic of the sentence at the beginning. | 1. The sentence topic: one can specialize the topic of the sentence at the beginning. | ||
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) aksham (evening), ob ("if") yu (you) ve ("will") go (to go) a ("to") koylok (somewhere)? – Are you going somewhere tonight?'' | |
2. Simple sentences may be combined into complex ones by conjunctions or combination "preposition + ke": | 2. Simple sentences may be combined into complex ones by conjunctions or combination "preposition + ke": | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) pri (to like) gani (to sing) e (and) yu (you) pri (to like) rasmi (to draw). – I like to sing and you like to draw.'' | |
| − | + | ''- Me (I) wud ("would") yao (to want) lekti (to read) bat (but) kitaba (book) yok (there is no). – I would like to read but there is no book.'' | |
| + | |||
| + | ''- Me (I) promeni (to go walking) obwol (although) pluvi (to rain). – I'm walking although it's raining.'' | ||
| + | |||
| + | ''- Me (I) mog (can) go (go) adar (there), bat (but) sol (only) kun (with) ke ("that") yu (you) go (to go) toshi (too). – I can go there, but only if you also go.'' | ||
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| − | |||
3. One simple sentence may be a constituent of another sentence. It may take place of: | 3. One simple sentence may be a constituent of another sentence. It may take place of: | ||
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3.1. the object | 3.1. the object | ||
| − | a) with the conjunction ke: | + | a) with the conjunction '''ke''': |
| − | + | ''- Me (I) vidi (to see) ke ("that") ela (she) rasmi (to draw). – I can see that she is drawing.'' | |
| − | b) with preposition + the | + | b) with preposition + the particle '''ke''': |
| − | + | ''- Me (I) shwo (talk) om (about) ke ("that") yu (you) bu (not) gun (to work). – I talk about the fact that you don't work.'' | |
c) with the particle ob: | c) with the particle ob: | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) bu (not) jan (to know) ob ("if") ta (he / she) es (is) in (in) dom (house). – I don't know if he / she is at home.'' | |
d) with a question word: | d) with a question word: | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) jan (to know) kwo (what) yu (you) yao (to want). – I know what you want.'' | |
e) After perception verbs (vidi (to see), kan (to look), audi (to hear), slu (to listen) etc.) there are can be "noun + participle" | e) After perception verbs (vidi (to see), kan (to look), audi (to hear), slu (to listen) etc.) there are can be "noun + participle" | ||
combination: | combination: | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) vidi (to see) ela (her) rasmi-she (drawing). – I see her draw.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 3.2. attribute | |
| − | + | a) If the attribute phrase is before the noun, use '''ti .. na''' to mark it: | |
| − | + | - ''{ Ti yu (you) vidi (to see) na boy (boy) } janmog (can) gani (to sing) hao (well). – The boy that you see can sing well.'' | |
| − | + | b) If the attribute phrase is after the noun, it is introduced by the particle '''ke''': | |
| − | + | - ''{ Boy (boy) ke ("that") yu (you) vidi (to see) } janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly). – The boy that you see can sing beautifully.'' | |
| − | + | - ''{ To (that) ke ("that") yu (you) shwo (to say) } es (is) hao (good). – The thing that you are talking about is good.'' | |
| − | + | c) The attribute phrase may have the same subject as the main phrase. In this case the pronoun '''kel''' (..na) is used: | |
| + | - ''Me (I) vidi (to see) boy (boy) { kel janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly)}. – I see the boy who can sing beautifully.'' | ||
| − | + | - ''Boy (boy) kel janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly) na es (is / are) hir (here). - The boy who can sing beatifully is here.'' | |
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| − | |||
| − | |||
| + | 3.3. predicative: | ||
| + | a) with the particle '''ke''': | ||
| + | |||
| + | - ''May (my) opina (opinion) es (is) { ke ("that") yu (you) es (is / are) verem (truly) jamile (beautiful) }. – My opinion is that you are | ||
| + | really beautiful.'' | ||
== Word == | == Word == | ||
| + | |||
=== 1. Noun === | === 1. Noun === | ||
| − | Examples: jen (human), arda (earth), flor (flower), animal (animal). | + | Examples: ''jen (human), arda (earth), flor (flower), animal (animal). |
| + | '' | ||
1.1 Number | 1.1 Number | ||
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a) The basic form of a noun doesn't convey the number: | a) The basic form of a noun doesn't convey the number: | ||
| − | + | - ''jen – a human / many humans'' | |
| − | + | - ''un (one) jen – a human'' | |
| − | + | - ''dwa (two) jen – two humans'' | |
| − | + | - ''mucho (many) jen – many humans'' | |
| − | + | - ''jenes – humans'' | |
| − | |||
| − | + | b) plural form (the stressed vowel doesn't change): | |
| − | + | if the word ends with a vowel: + s: ''un kitaba (a book) – kitabas, un tabla (a table) – tablas'' | |
| − | if the word ends with a consnant: + es | + | if the word ends with a consnant: + es: ''un flor (a flower) – flores, un animal (an animal) – animales'' |
| − | |||
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b) The change of the word order is indicated by the particle den: | b) The change of the word order is indicated by the particle den: | ||
| − | + | - ''Den sey (this) flor (flower) me (I) pri (to like). – I like this flower.'' | |
| − | + | - ''den dom (house) sobre (above) – above the house'' | |
c) Nominative marker is da (used only when necessary): | c) Nominative marker is da (used only when necessary): | ||
| − | + | - ''Mata (mother) samaji (to understand) me (I) sam (same) hao (good, well) kom (as) da yu (you). – Mother understands me as well as you do.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Mata (mother) samaji (to understand) me (I) sam (same) hao (good, well) kom (as) den yu (you). – Mother understands me as well as you.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | + | 1.3. Gender: | |
| − | + | a) Nouns don't belong to any gender: ''amiga – friend (male or female)'' | |
b) One can specify the sex of a human by: | b) One can specify the sex of a human by: | ||
| − | particles man- and gin- | + | particles '''man'''- and '''gin'''- |
| − | + | - ''leker (doctor) – man-leker (male-doctor) – gin-leker (female doctor)'' | |
| − | + | - ''kota (cat) – man-kota (male-cat) – gin-kota (female-cat)'' | |
| − | changing "a" with -o and -ina: | + | changing "a" with -'''o''' and -'''ina''': |
| − | + | - ''amiga (friend) – amigo (male friend) – amigina (female friend)'' | |
c) Some nouns imply the sex of the human: | c) Some nouns imply the sex of the human: | ||
| − | + | - ''man (man) – gina (woman)'' | |
| − | + | - ''boy (boy) – gela (girl)'' | |
| − | + | - ''patra (father) – mata (mother)'' | |
| − | + | - ''son (son) – docha (daughter)'' | |
| − | + | - ''opa (grandfather) – oma (grandmother)'' | |
| − | + | - ''brata (brother) – sista (sister)'' | |
| − | + | - ''onkla (uncle) – tia (aunt)'' | |
| − | |||
| − | + | 1.4. Apposition may be marked with '''to''' (from "to es" – that is): | |
| + | |||
| + | - ''Me (I) to kitabnik (book lover) lekti (to read) mucho (much). – I, being a book lover, read a lot.'' | ||
| + | |||
| + | - ''Molya (wife) gro-lubi (to adore) suy (her) mursha (husband) to soldata (soldier). – The wife adores her husband who is a soldier.'' | ||
| − | |||
1.5. There is no article (numeral "un" (one) and demonstrative pronouns like "sey" (this) are used instead, when necessary). | 1.5. There is no article (numeral "un" (one) and demonstrative pronouns like "sey" (this) are used instead, when necessary). | ||
| − | 2. Pronouns that function like nouns | + | |
| + | ==== 2. Pronouns that function like nouns ==== | ||
2.1. Personal: | 2.1. Personal: | ||
| − | a) me (I), nu (we), yu (you), ta (he / she), li (they) | + | a) '''me''' (I), '''nu''' (we), '''yu''' (you), '''ta''' (he / she), '''li''' (they) |
| − | + | - ''Nu (we) vidi (to see) li (they). – We see them.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) dumi (to think) om (about) yu (you). – I'm thinking about you.'' | |
| − | b) lu (he), ela (she), it (it), yu oli (you all), oni (one), ambi (both) | + | b) '''lu''' (he), '''ela''' (she), '''it''' (it), '''yu oli''' (you all), '''oni''' (one), '''ambi''' (both) |
| − | + | - ''Oni (one) shwo (to say) ke ("that")... – One says that...'' | |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) kitaba (book). Me (I) pren (to take) it (it). – This is a book. I take it.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) hev (to have) dwa (two) kota (cat). Ambi (both) es (is / are) swate (black). – I have two cats. They both are black.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | + | 2.2. Reflexive: '''swa''' (oneself), '''mutu''' (one another) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) woshi (to wash) swa (oneself). – I wash myself.'' | |
| + | |||
| + | - ''Ela (she) lubi (to love) swa (oneself). – She loves herself.'' | ||
| + | |||
| + | - ''Nu (we) lubi (to love) mutu (one another). – We love one another.'' | ||
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| − | |||
| − | + | 2.4. Demonstrative: '''se''' (this), '''to''' (that) | |
| + | |||
| + | - ''Se (this) es (is) auto (car), to (that) es (is) avion (airplane). – This is a car, that is an airplane. '' | ||
2.5. Relative: | 2.5. Relative: | ||
| − | a) ke ("that" – object) | + | a) '''ke''' ("that" – object) |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) kitaba (book) ke ("that") yu (you) he ("past tense") lekti (to read). – This is the book that you have read.'' | |
| − | b) kel ("who / which" – subject, or with a preposition) | + | b) '''kel''' ("who / which" – subject, or with a preposition) |
| − | + | - ''Es (is) boy (boy) kel (who) janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) muy (very) hao (good, well). – This is the boy who can sing very well.'' | |
| − | 2.6. sama (the same thing) | + | 2.6. '''sama''' (the same thing) |
| + | |||
| + | - ''Hao (good) Nove (new) Yar (year)! – Sama (the same thing) a yu (to you)! – Happy New Year! – The same (thing) to you!'' | ||
| − | |||
=== 3. Adjective === | === 3. Adjective === | ||
| − | Examples: hao (good), jamile (beautiful), blu (blue). | + | Examples: ''hao (good), jamile (beautiful), blu (blue).'' |
3.1. Comparison: | 3.1. Comparison: | ||
| − | a) pyu... kem (more... than), meno... kem (less... than) | + | a) '''pyu... kem''' (more... than), '''meno... kem''' (less... than) |
| − | + | - ''May (my) syao (little) kamila (camomille) es (is / are) pyu (more) jamile (beautiful) kem (than) yur (your) gran (big) rosa (rose). – My little camomille is more beautiful than your rose..'' | |
| − | b) sam .. kom (as... as), | + | b) '''sam .. kom''' (as... as), |
| − | c) zuy (the most), minim (the least) | + | c) '''zuy''' (the most), '''minim''' (the least) |
| − | + | - ''Luy (his) auto (car) es (is) zuy (the most) kway (fast). – His car is the fastest. '' | |
| − | d) kem... tem (the... the...) | + | d) '''kem... tem''' (the... the...) |
| − | + | - ''kem pyu (more) kway (fast), tem pyu (more) hao (good, well) – the faster, the better'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 3.2. Intensification: | |
| − | + | a) '''muy''' (very) | |
| − | + | - ''Ela (she) es (is / are) muy (very) jamile (beautiful). – She is very beautiful.'' | |
| − | + | b) '''tro''' (too) | |
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) panta (trousers) es (is / are) tro (too) gran (big). – These trousers are too big.'' | |
| − | + | c) '''idyen''' (a little) | |
| − | + | - ''Yur (your) klaida (clothes) es (is / are) idyen (a little) mokre (wet). – Your clothes are a little wet.'' | |
| − | + | d) '''basta''' (enough) | |
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) dom (house) es (is / are) basta (enough) gran (big). – This house is big enough.'' | |
| − | + | e) '''ga''' (completely) | |
| − | + | - ''Kinda (child) es (is / are) ga (completely) gande (dirty). – The child is completely dirty.'' | |
| − | + | f) '''aika''' (quite) | |
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) dom (house) es (is / are) aika gran (big). - This house is quite big.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | ==== 3.3. Pronouns that function as adjectives ==== | |
| − | + | a) posessive: '''may''' (my), '''nuy''' (our), '''yur''' (your), '''suy''' (his / her), '''luy''' (his), '''elay''' (her), '''ley''' (their) | |
| − | + | - ''Wo (where) es (is) yur (your) mata (mother)? – Where is your mother?'' | |
| − | + | b) '''swa-ney''' (own) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) pren (to take) swa-ney (own) bao (bag), bu (not) yur (your) shapa (hat). – I take my own bag, (and) not your hat. '' | |
| − | + | c) demonstrative: '''sey''' (this), '''toy''' (that), '''tal''' (such) | |
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) dom (house) es (is) gao (tall). – This house is tall.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) bu (not) pri (to like) tal (such) joka (joke). – I don't like such jokes.'' | |
| − | + | d) specifying: '''koy''' (some), '''eni''' (any), '''kada''' (every, each), '''otre''' (other), '''same''' (same), '''nul''' (no), '''ol''' (all, whole) | |
| − | + | - ''Kada (every) gina (woman) pri (to like) chokolat (chocolate). – Every woman likes chocolate. '' | |
| + | - ''Nul (no) kota (cat) pri (to like) chi (to eat) legum (vegetable). – No cat likes to eat vegetables.'' | ||
=== 4. Adverb === | === 4. Adverb === | ||
| − | Examples: hao (well), klarem (clearly). | + | Examples: ''hao (well), klarem (clearly).'' |
4.1. Comparison: look comparison for adjectives | 4.1. Comparison: look comparison for adjectives | ||
| − | |||
| − | + | ==== 4.2. Demonstrative ==== | |
| − | + | a) of manner: '''tak''' (so) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) bu (not) pri (to like) wen (when) yu (you) shwo (to say) tak (so). – I don't like when you talk so.'' | |
| − | + | b) number: '''tanto''' (so much) | |
| − | + | - ''Yu (you) bu (not) gai (should) shwo (to say) tanto (so much) lautem (loudly). – You shouldn't talk so loudly.'' | |
| − | + | - ''tanto kway (fast) kom (as) posible (possible) – as fast as possible'' | |
| − | + | c) situation: '''hir''' (here), '''dar''' (there) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) es (is /are /am) hir (here), yu (you) es (is / are / am) dar (there). – You are here, I'm there.'' | |
| − | + | d) direction: '''ahir''' ((to) here), '''adar''' ((to) there) | |
| − | + | - ''Lai (to come) ba ("imperative") ahir (here)! Nau (now) go (to go) ba ("imperative") adar (there)! – Come here! Now go there!'' | |
| − | + | e) time, condition: '''dan''' (then) | |
| − | + | - ''dan me (I) bu (not) mog-te (can + "past tense") – then (at that time) I could'' | |
| − | + | - ''dan me (I) bu (not) go (to go) – then (under such condition) I'm not going'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | ==== 4.3. Compound ==== | |
| − | nullok (nowhere) | + | a) situation: '''koylok''' (somewhere), '''enilok''' (anywhere), '''kadalok''' (everywhere), '''otrelok''' (in the other place), '''nullok''' (nowhere) |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) lekti (to read) mucho (much), luy (his) kitaba (book) es (is) kadalok (everywhere). – He reads a lot, his boooks are everywhere.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Hir (here) yur (your) bao (bag) yok (there is no), shuki (to look for) ba ("imperative") otrelok (in the other place). – There is no your | |
| − | bag here, look for it some other place. | + | bag here, look for it some other place.'' |
| − | b) time: | + | b) time: '''koytaim''' (sometime), '''enitaim''' (anytime), '''oltaim''' (all the time); '''koyves''' (sometimes), '''kadaves''' (every time), '''unves''' (once), '''otreves''' (another time), '''nulves''' (not once, never) |
| − | + | - ''Koytaim (sometime) me (I) ve ("future tense") go (to go) a ("direction") Paris (Paris). – Sometime I will go t Paris.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) lekti (to read) oltaim (all the time). – He is reading all the time'' | |
| − | + | c) manner: '''koykomo''' (somehow), '''enikomo''' (anyhow) | |
| − | + | - ''Yu (you) mog (can) resolvi (to solve) sey (this) taska (task) enikomo (anyhow). – You can solve this task anyhow.'' | |
| − | + | d) degree: '''koygrad''' (to some degree), '''nulgrad''' (not in the least) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) sol (only) koygrad (to some degree) samaji (to understand) yu (you). – I understand you only to some degree. '' | |
| − | + | e) other: '''olosam''' (anyway), '''otrekas''' (otherwise) | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | ==== 4.4. Other ==== | |
| − | sempre (always), oftem (often) | + | a) frequence: '''sempre''' (always), '''oftem''' (often), '''rarem''' (rarely), '''pinchanem''' (usually), '''neva''' (never) |
| − | rarem (rarely), pinchanem (usually) | + | |
| − | neva (never) | + | |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) sempre (always) tardi (to be late). – He is always late.'' | |
| − | b) time: | + | b) time: '''nau''' (now), '''poy''' (then, later), '''sun''' (soon), '''turan''' (suddenly), '''tuy''' (right now), '''yeri''' (yesterday), '''sedey''' (today), '''manya''' (tomorrow) |
| − | + | - ''Sedey (today) meteo (weather) es (is) hao (good). Me (I) bu (not) jan (to know) kwel (what) meteo (weather) ve ("future tense") bi (to be) manya (tomorrow). – Today the weather is good. I don't know what the weather will be like tomorrow.'' | |
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | c) '''yo''' (already), '''haishi''' (still, as yet), '''snova''' (again) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) yo (already) jan (to know) om (about) to (that). – I know about that already.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) haishi (still) safari (to travel). — He still travels.'' | |
| − | + | d) supposition: '''shayad''' (perhaps), '''mogbi''' (maybe), '''musbi''' (must be), '''semblem''' (seemingly), '''sertem''' (certainly), '''zaruu''' (without fail), '''ouran''' (casually), '''verem''' (actually) | |
| − | + | - ''Shayad ta (he / she) bu (not) ve ("future tense") lai (to come). – Perhaps he / she will not come.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Musbi ta (he / she) he ("past tense") fogeti (to forget). – He must have forgotten about it.'' | |
| − | + | e) addition, confirmation: '''yoshi''' (also), '''toshi''' (too) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) hev (to have) blan (white) kamila (camilla).Yoshi (also) me (I) hev (to have) rude (red) rosa (rose). – I have a white camilla. Also I have a red rose. '' | |
| − | + | - '' Lu (he) toshi (also, too) hev (to have) rosa (rose). – He has a rose too.'' | |
| − | + | f) non-exactness: '''hampi''' (almost), '''sirke''' (about, approximately), '''vaika''' (just, at least), '''kwasi''' (as if) | |
| − | + | - ''Hampi (almost) oli (everybody) lai (to come). – Nearly everybody comes / came.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) hev (to have) sirke (approximately) dwa (two) litra (litre) milka (milk). – I have about two litres milk. '' | |
| − | + | - ''Dai (to give) ba ("imperative") vaika (at least, just) fo (for) un (one) minuta (minute)! – Give (it to me) at least for one minute!'' | |
| − | + | - ''Ela (she) kwasi bu (not) merki (to notice) me (I). - She behaves as if she didn't notice me.'' | |
| − | + | g) exceptiveness: '''sol''' (only), '''sim''' (simply), '''rek''' (just, straight), '''yus''' (just) | |
| − | + | - ''Sol ela (she) mog (can) samaji (to understand) me (I). – Only she can understand me.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Sim silensi (to keep silence) ba (imperative marker) idyen (a little). - Just keep silence for a while.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Sey (this) kamina (road) dukti (to lead) straight a (to) urba (town). - This road leads straight to the town.'' | |
| − | + | h) degree: '''gro''' (very much, greatly) | |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) lubi (to love) suy (his / her) molya (wife) gro (much). – He loves his wife very much.'' | |
| − | + | i) continuation: '''for''' (further, on) | |
| − | + | - ''Ta (he / she) gun (to work) for (further). – He is working on.'' | |
| − | + | j) away: '''wek''' (away) | |
| − | + | - ''Go (to go) wek (away)! – Go away!'' | |
| − | + | k) loose: '''los''' | |
| − | + | - ''Doga (dog) es (is) los (loose). – The dog is loose.'' | |
| − | + | l) on / off: '''on, of''' | |
| − | + | - ''Mah ("to make") radio (radio) on. – Make the radio on.'' | |
| − | + | m) emphasis: '''iven''' (even), '''primem''' (firstly) | |
| − | + | - ''Iven kinda (child) mog (can) samaji (to understand) se (this)). – Even a child can understand that.'' | |
| − | + | n) in vain: '''vanem''' | |
| − | + | - ''Li (they) shuki (to look for) ol (whole) dey (day), bat (but) vanem. – The have been looking for it during the whole day, but in vain.'' | |
| − | + | === 5. Verb === | |
| + | Examples: ''vidi (to see), jan (to know), shwo (to talk). | ||
| + | '' | ||
| + | 5.1. Verb form doesn't change. Grammar meaning are expressed with special particles. Exception: '''bi''' (to be) – '''es''' (is / are / am) – '''bin''' (was / were). | ||
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5.2. Tenses | 5.2. Tenses | ||
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If there is any indication of time of action, the basic verb form can be used. | If there is any indication of time of action, the basic verb form can be used. | ||
| − | + | - ''Unves (once) me (I) miti (to meet) rega (king / queen). – Once I met a king / queen.'' | |
The tense can be specified with particles: | The tense can be specified with particles: | ||
| − | a) ve ("future tense"), -te ("past tense") | + | a) '''ve-''' ("future tense"), -'''te''' ("past tense") |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) lekti (to read) mucho (much). – I read a lot.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Bat (but) me (I) bu (not) lekti-te (to read + "past tense") sey (this) kitaba (book). – I didn't read this book.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) ve ("future tense") lekti (to read) it (it). – I will read it.'' | |
| − | b) zai (continuous marker) | + | b) '''zai''' (continuous marker) |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) bu (not) mog (can) lai (to come) nau (now), me (I) zai chi (to eat) deyfan (dinner). – I can't come now I'm having dinner.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Kwo (what) me (I) zwo (to do) yeri (yesterday) klok ("o'clock") sit (six)? Me (I) zai promeni-te (to walk + "past tense") in (in) shulin | |
| − | (forest). – What was I doing yesterday at six o'clock? I was walking in the forest. | + | (forest). – What was I doing yesterday at six o'clock? I was walking in the forest.'' |
| − | c) he (completed action) | + | c) '''he''' (completed action) |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) he zwo (to do) olo (all, everything). – I have done everything.'' | |
| − | d) yus he ("just") | + | d) '''yus he''' ("just") |
| − | + | - ''Way (why) yu (you) es (is / are) gande (dirty)? Me (I) yus he woshi (to wash) yu (you)! – Why are you dirty? I have just washed you! '' | |
| − | e) gwo (indefinite past, "used to") | + | e) '''gwo''' (indefinite past, "used to") |
| − | + | - ''Ob (a question particle) nu (we) gwo miti (to meet) koylok (somewhere)? – Have me ever met somewhere? '' | |
| − | f) sal (near future, "be going to") | + | f) '''sal''' (near future, "be going to") |
| − | + | - ''Sup (soup) es (is / are) tayar (ready). Nu (we) sal chi (to eat) deyfan (dinner). – The soup is ready. We are going to have dinner.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | 5. | + | 5.3. Subjunctive ("would"): '''wud''' |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) wud yao (to want) bi (to be) rega (king / queen). – I would like to be a king / a queen. '' | |
| + | |||
| + | 5.4. Speaking about an other people's opinion: '''muka''' | ||
| + | |||
| + | - ''Lu (he) muka lubi (to love) ela (she). – He is said to love her.'' | ||
5.5. Imperative: | 5.5. Imperative: | ||
| − | a) ba | + | a) '''ba''' |
| − | + | - ''Gani (to sing) ba, me (I) pri (to like) audi (to hear) wen (when) yu (you) gani (to sing). – Sing (to me), I like to hear you sing.'' | |
| − | b) bye (don't) | + | b) '''bye''' (don't) |
| − | + | - ''Bye lai (to come)! – Don't come!'' | |
| − | c) hay (let, may), magari (I wish), nomagari (I wish not) | + | c) '''hay''' (let, may), '''magari''' (I wish), '''nomagari''' (I wish not) |
| − | + | - ''Hay may (my) yaosa (wish) fulfil (fulfil)! — May my wish come true!'' | |
| − | + | - ''Magari surya (sun) lai (to come)! – I wish the sun came! '' | |
| − | + | - ''Nomagari pluvi (to rain)! – I wish it didn't rain!'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 5.6. Indication of transitiveness (if necessary): | |
| − | + | a) '''fa-''' ("to become, get"): ''astoni (to astonish) – fa-astoni (to get astonished)'' | |
| − | + | b) '''mah'''- ("to cause"): ''lwo (to fall) – mah-lwo (to drop)'' | |
5.7. Indication of the aspect (if necessary): | 5.7. Indication of the aspect (if necessary): | ||
| − | a) en- (to begin) | + | a) '''en'''- (to begin): ''Poy (then) ta (he / she) en-gani (to begin to sing). – Then he / she begins / began singing.'' |
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | + | b) '''ek'''- ("one time or suddenly"): ''Ela (she) ek-krai (to cry one time) turan (suddenly). – She gave a cry suddenly.'' | |
| − | c) verb doubling (action takes some time or is repeated many times) | + | c) verb doubling (action takes some time or is repeated many times): ''Lu (he) go-go (go) pa (preposition of a wide meaning) shamba (room). – He paced up and down the room.'' |
| − | + | d) the adverb '''oltaim''' (the action is continuous or is repeting all the time): ''Lu (he) shwo (to say, to talk) oltaim. – He is talking all the time.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | 5.8. Passive: gei ("is being done") | + | 5.8. Passive: '''gei''' ("is being done") |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) zai (continuous marker) lekti (to read) sey (this) kitaba (book), also (so) it (it) gei lekti (to read). – I'm reading this book, so it is being read.'' | |
5.9. Participle: | 5.9. Participle: | ||
| − | a) -she (active) | + | a) -'''she''' (active) |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) zai (continuous marker) lekti (to read), me (I) es (is / are) lekti-she (reading). – I'm reading.'' | |
| − | b) -ney (passive or past) | + | b) '''-ney''' (passive or past) |
| − | + | -''Me (I) he (past tense marker) lekti (to read) sey (this) kitaba (book), it (it) es (is / are) yo (already) lekti-ney (read). – I have read this book, it is already read.'' | |
| − | this book, it is already read. | + | |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) yus he ("just") lai (to come), lu (he) es (is / are) yo (already) lai-ney (come). – He has just come.'' | |
| − | 5.10. Participle: -yen ("while doing") | + | 5.10. Participle: -'''yen''' ("while doing") |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) zai (continuous marker) slu (to listen) kan-yen (looking at) yu (you). – I'm listening while looking at you.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | 5. | + | 5.11. Simultaneity: '''al''' |
| − | + | - ''Al vidi (to see) me (I) lu (he) ahfi (to hide) swa (oneself). – As soon as he sees me, he hides himself.'' | |
| − | + | 5.12. Succession of actions: '''afte''' (after) | |
| − | + | - ''Afte vidi (to see) un (one) ves (time) yu (you) neva (never) fogeti (to forget). – After you see it once, you will never forget it.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | ==== 6. Special verbs ==== | |
| − | 6. | + | 6.1. '''fai''' (can substitute any verb): ''fai kama (bed) – to lie or to sleep in the bed'' |
| − | + | 6.2. '''mah''' ("to cause"): ''mah sikin (knife) agude (sharp) – to sharpen the knife (= mah-agude sikin)'' | |
| − | + | 6.3. '''hev''' (to have), '''ye''' (there is), '''yok''' (there is no), '''walaa''' (here is) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) hev (to have) dwa (two) kalam (pencil). – I have two pencils.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Kalam (pencil) ye (there is), bat (but) papir (paper) yok (there is no). – There is a pencil, but there is no paper.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Walaa may (my) shamba (room). – Here is my room.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 6.4. Modal verbs. | |
| − | + | a) Possibility, abilty: '''mog''' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) mog zwo (to do) se (this). – I can do it.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Bu (not) mog jivi (to live) sin (without) akwa (water). – One can't live without water.'' | |
| − | + | b) Know how: '''janmog''' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) janmog gani (to sing) hao (good, well). – I can sing well.'' | |
| − | + | c) Permission: '''darfi''' | |
| − | + | - ''Hir (here) bu (not) darfi fumi (to smoke). – One can't (isn't allowed to) smoke here.'' | |
| − | + | d) Need: '''nidi''' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) nidi chi (to eat) koysa (something) – I need to eat something.'' | |
| − | + | e) Be obliged, have to: '''majbur''' | |
| − | + | - ''En-pluvi (to begin to rain), me (I) majbur go (to go) a dom (home). – it has started to rain; I have to go home.'' | |
| − | + | f) It is necessary; require: '''treba''' | |
| − | + | - ''Treba fini (finish) til (till) aksham (evening). – It is necessary to finish till the evening.'' | |
| − | + | g) Should: '''gai''' | |
| − | + | - ''Bu (not) gai lanfai (to be lazy). – One shouldn't be lazy.'' | |
| − | + | h) Must: '''mus''' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) mus go (to go) a ofis (to the office). – I must go to the office.'' | |
| + | i) Wish: ''yao'' | ||
| − | + | - ''Me (I) yao shwo (to talk) kun (with) yu (you). – I want to talk to you.'' | |
| − | + | j) To like: '''pri''' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) pri raki (to ride) bisikla (bicycle). – I like to ride a bicycle.'' | |
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| − | + | 6.5. “Intensive” verbs (before another verb) | |
| − | + | a) to succeed in doing: '''pai''' (to get) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) pai ofni (to open) boxa (box). – I have managed to open the box.'' | |
| − | + | b) indication of a new condition: '''lwo in''' (to fall in) | |
| − | + | - ''Ela (she) lwo in plaki (to cry). – She burst into tears.'' | |
| − | + | c) unexpectedness: '''dai''' (to give) | |
| − | + | - ''dai shwo (ta say, to talk) – to blurt out'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 6.6. "worth": '''val''' | |
| − | + | - ''Val slu (to listen) pyu (more) atentem (attentively). – It's worth listening more attentively.'' | |
| − | + | 6.7. “state” verb: '''sta''' | |
| − | + | - ''Komo (how) yu (you) sta? – How are you?'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) sta hao (good, well). – I'm well.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | + | == Compound words == | |
| − | + | 1. When sequence of two words acquires a new meaning, at least a little, the words are written together and a compound word appears. | |
| − | + | 1.1. The last word is the main one in a sequence: | |
| − | + | - ''gun (to work) + taim (time) = guntaim (action time)'' | |
| − | + | - ''surya (sun) + flor (flower) = suryaflor (sunflower)'' | |
| − | + | - ''maus (mouse) + kapter (catcher) = mauskapter (mouse trap)'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 1.2. Some words are regularly used to make compound words: | |
| − | + | a) '''jen''' (person), '''man''' (man), '''gina''' (woman): ''jadu (sorcery) – jadujen (sorcerer/sorceress) – jadugina (sorceress) – jaduman (sorcerer)'' | |
| − | + | b) '''yuan''' (employee): ''polis (police) – polisyuan (policeman)'' | |
| − | + | c) '''guan''' (institution): ''kitaba (book) – kitabaguan (library)'' | |
| − | + | d) '''lok(o)''' (place): ''habitilok (habitation)'' | |
| − | + | e) '''menga''' (great amount): ''jenmenga (crowd)'' | |
| − | + | f) '''fin''' (end): ''lekti (to read) – finlekti (to read completely)'' | |
| − | + | g) '''swa''' (oneself): ''swa-luba (self-love), swa-kontrola (self-control)'' | |
| − | + | h) '''for''' (ahead): ''for-gunsa (work continuation)'' | |
| − | + | i) '''kontra''' (against): ''kontratoxin (antidote); kontrapon (to oppose)'' | |
| − | j) sin (without) | + | j) '''sin''' (without): ''sinsensu-ney (meaningless)'' |
| − | + | k) '''tra''' (through): ''go (to go) – trago (to go through)'' | |
| − | + | ||
| − | k) tra (through) | + | |
| − | + | ||
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1. Noun to adjective: | 1. Noun to adjective: | ||
| − | a) -ney (for nouns ending with -а the short form is acceptable: resta-ney = reste) | + | a) -'''ney''' (for nouns ending with -а the short form is acceptable: resta-ney = reste): ''interes (interest) – interes-ney (interesting)'' |
| − | + | b) -'''ful''' (full of): ''luma (light) – lumaful (full of light, luminous)'' | |
| − | + | c) '''-lik''' (similar in appearance or character): ''gina (woman) – ginalik (feminine, womanly)'' | |
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2.1. Suffixes. | 2.1. Suffixes. | ||
| − | a) -a (for adjectives ending in -e) | + | a) -'''a''' ''(only for adjectives ending in -e)'' (“something or somebody characterized with this quality”) |
| − | + | - ''adulte (grown-up) – adulta (a grown-up person), konstante (constant) – konstanta (a constant)'' | |
| − | + | b) -(i)'''taa''' (makes abstract nouns): ''vere (true) – veritaa (truth), hao (good) – haotaa (goodness)'' | |
| − | + | c) -'''nesa''': ''gao (high) – gaonesa (highness) – gaotaa (height)'' | |
| − | + | d) -'''nik''' (characteristic feature): ''hao (good) – haonik (good one)'' | |
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| − | d) -nik (characteristic feature) | + | |
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| − | + | ||
| + | e) -'''ka''' (a thing having the quality): ''mole (soft) – molika (pulp)'' | ||
2.2. Particles: | 2.2. Particles: | ||
| − | a) lo | + | a) '''lo''': ''Lo zuy (most) muhim (important) es (is) luba (love). – The most important thing is love.'' |
| − | + | ||
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| − | + | b) -'''la''' / -'''las''': ''Walaa (here is) dwa (two) rosa (rose). Sey-la (this one) es (is) rude (red), toy-la (that one) es (is) blan (white). – Here are two roses. This one is red and that one is white.'' | |
| + | c) '''wan''' (only about people): ''Syao (little) wan bu (not) lai (to come). – The little one isn't coming.'' | ||
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | 3. Adjective to adverb: -'''(e)m''' ''(the stressed vowel doesn't change)'' or the same form | |
| − | + | a) for adjectives ending in -e: ''klare (clear) – klarem (clearly)'' | |
| − | + | b) for adjectives ending in a consonant: ''santush (satisfied, contented) — santushem (contentedly)'' | |
| − | c) for other adjectives the form doesn't change | + | c) for other adjectives the form doesn't change: ''hao (good, well), kway (quick, quickly)'' |
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| + | 4. Noun to adverb: -'''nem''': ''amiga (friend) – amiga-nem (friendly) '' | ||
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5. Noun to verb: | 5. Noun to verb: | ||
| − | a) -vati | + | a) -'''vati''': ''pao (a bubble) – paovati (to bubble)'' |
| − | + | b) -'''isi''': ''memoria (memory) – memorisi (to memorize)'' | |
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6. Adjective to verb | 6. Adjective to verb | ||
| − | a) fa- (= -ifi) | + | a) '''fa'''- (= -'''ifi'''): ''hao (good) – fa-hao (to improve, grow better)'', ''leve (light) – levifi (to lighten, become lighter)'' |
| − | + | b) '''mah'''- (= -'''isi'''): ''gran (big) – mah-gran (to increase, make bigger), klin (clean) – klinisi (to clean, cleanse)'' | |
| − | + | c) -'''fai''': ''hwan (yellow) – hwanfai (appear/show yellow)'' | |
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7.1. Without special changes in meaning | 7.1. Without special changes in meaning | ||
| − | a) -a (for the verbs ending with "consonant + i") | + | a) -'''a''' (for the verbs ending with "consonant + i"), -'''sa''' (for other verbs) (the act, the result): ''lubi (to love) – luba (love), gun (to work) – gunsa (work)'' |
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| − | -sa (for other verbs) (the act, the result) | + | |
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| − | + | b) -'''ing''' (the process) (the stressed vowel doesn't change): ''swimi (to swim) – swiming (swimming), gloti (to swallow) – glota (a swallow) – gloting (swallowing)'' | |
| + | c) '''tu''': ''Tu samaji (to understand) es (is / are) tu pardoni (to forgive). – To understand means to forgive.'' | ||
7.2. Doer | 7.2. Doer | ||
| − | a) -er (doer or tool) | + | a) -'''er''' (doer or tool): ''leki (to treat medically) – leker (doctor), ofni (to open) – ofner (opener)'' |
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| + | b) -'''sha''' (a person performing the action): ''plei (to play) – plei-sha (the one who is playing)'' | ||
| + | c) -'''nik''' (a person having a characteristic feature): ''fobi (to be afraid of) – fobnik (coward)'' | ||
7.3. Related to the action | 7.3. Related to the action | ||
| − | a) -tura (the final result) | + | a) -'''tura''' (the final result): ''shwo (to say, to talk) – shwotura (a saying)'' |
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| − | + | b) -'''wat''' (the object of action): ''pi (to drink) – piwat (beverage)'' | |
| − | + | c) -'''ka''' (an object related to the action): ''pendi (to hang) – pendika (peg, rack)'' | |
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8.1. General meaning | 8.1. General meaning | ||
| − | a) -ke (related to) | + | a) -'''ke''' (related to): ''helpi (to help) – helpike (auxiliary), hao-chi-ke (good, well + to eat) fan (food) – tasty food'' |
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| + | b) -'''she''', -'''ney''' (participles): ''skribi (to write) – skribi-she (writing), skribi (to write) – skribi-ney (written)'' | ||
8.2. With special meaning | 8.2. With special meaning | ||
| − | a) -bile (possibility) | + | a) -'''bile''' (possibility): ''vidi (to see) – vidibile (visible)'' |
| − | + | b) -'''shil''' (tending to): ''kusi (to bite) – kusishil (tending to bite)'' | |
| − | + | c) -'''val''' (worth doing): ''admiri (to admire) – admirival (admirable)'' | |
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9. Verb to adverb | 9. Verb to adverb | ||
| − | a) -shem (the short form for the verbs ending with i: sembli-shem = semblem) | + | a) -'''shem''' (the short form for the verbs ending with i: sembli-shem = semblem): ''ahfi (to hide) – ahfi-shem (secretly)'' |
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| + | b) -'''nem''': ''ofensi (to offend) – ofensi-nem (like being offended)'' | ||
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| − | 1. Common | + | === 1. Common === |
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| − | 1.1. Opposition: no- | + | 1.1. Opposition: '''no'''-: ''pinchan (ordinary) – nopinchan (extraordinary)'' |
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1.2. Diminutive and magnifying: | 1.2. Diminutive and magnifying: | ||
| − | a) -ki (diminutive, doesn't change the quality) | + | a) -'''ki''' (diminutive, doesn't change the quality): ''doga (dog) – doga-ki (a little dog, doggy); somni (to sleep) – somni-ki (to take a nap)'' |
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| − | + | b) '''gro'''- (magnifying, without change in meaning): ''okos (eyes) – gro-okos (big eyes), gao (high, tall) – gro-gao (very high), danke (thank you) – gro-danke (thank you very much), pluvi (to rain) – gro-pluvi (to rain heavily)'' | |
| + | 1.3. '''pre'''- (precedence): ''vidi (to see) – previdi (to foresee), nam (name) – prenam (first name), yeri (yesterday) – preyeri (the day before yesterday)'' | ||
1.4. Negative attitude | 1.4. Negative attitude | ||
| − | a) dus- ("bad, ill") | + | a) '''dus'''- ("bad, ill"): ''fauha (smell) – dusfauha (stink), trati (to trat) – dustrati (to mistreat)'' |
| − | + | b) '''shma'''- (disdain): ''kaval (horse) – shma-kaval (jade), skribi (to write) – shma-skribi (to scribble)'' | |
| − | + | 1.5. Similarity: -'''si''': ''kitaba-si (sort of a book)'' | |
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| − | + | === 2. Noun === | |
| + | 2.1. Diminutive and magnifying: | ||
| − | + | a) -'''kin''' (diminutive, with some change of quality): ''barela (barrel) – barelakin (keg)'' | |
| − | + | b) -'''gron''' (magnifying, with some change of meaning): ''denta (tooth) – dentagron (tusk)'' | |
| + | 2.2. Other: | ||
| − | + | a) -'''inka''' (particle): ''snega (snow) – sneginka (snowflake)'' | |
| − | + | b) -'''tot''' (a whole, a total): ''rishta (a relative) – rishtatot (all relatives, a clan)'' | |
| − | + | c) '''yun'''- (a young): ''kota (cat) – yunkota (kitten)'' | |
| − | + | d) '''pra'''- (ancestor): ''opa (grandfather) – praopa (great-grandfather)'', ''lingwa (language) – pralingwa (parent language)'' | |
| − | + | e) -'''ista''' (relating to a doctrine or a profession): ''denta (tooth) – dentista (dentist)'' | |
| − | + | f) -'''nik''' (bearer of some characteristic feature): ''kitaba (book) – kitabnik (book lover)'' | |
| − | + | g) -'''dan''' (a container): ''nayu (butter) – nayudan (butterdish)'' | |
| − | + | h) '''fuy'''- (disgust): ''jen (person) – fuy-jen (nasty person)'' | |
| − | + | i) '''stif'''- (step-): - ''mata (mother) – stif-mata (stepmother)'' | |
| − | + | j) '''-inloo''' (indirect kinship) (colloq.): ''brata (brother) – brata-inloo (cousin)'' | |
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| − | + | === 3. Adjective === | |
| − | + | 3.1. '''bu'''- (negation, but not opposition): ''gran (big) – bugran (not big)'' | |
| − | + | 3.2. -'''ish''' ("to some degree"): ''blan (white) – blanish (whitish), hao (good) – haoish (passable)'' | |
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4.1. Prefixes of aspect | 4.1. Prefixes of aspect | ||
| − | a) en- (beginning) | + | a) '''en'''- (beginning): ''lubi (to love) – en-lubi (to fall in love)'' |
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| + | b) '''ek'''- (one time or suddenly): ''krai (to cry) – ek-krai (to give a cry)'' | ||
| + | 4.2. Opposite action: '''de'''(s)-: ''sharji (to charge) – desharji (to unload, to discharge)'' | ||
4.3. Other prefixes | 4.3. Other prefixes | ||
| − | a) ras- (separation, division, or dispersion) | + | a) '''ras'''- (separation, division, or dispersion): ''dai (to give) – rasdai (to distribute, give to several people)'' |
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| − | + | b) '''ri'''- (again): ''zwo (to do) – rizwo (to do anew)'' | |
| + | c) '''ko'''- (together): ''senti (to feel) – ko-senti (sympathize (with), feel (for))'' | ||
| + | d) '''be'''- (changes the object): ''dumi (to think) – bedumi koysa (ponder over something)'', ''chori (to steal) – bechori koywan (to rob somebody)'' | ||
== Prepositions == | == Prepositions == | ||
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1.1. After a preposition there may be: | 1.1. After a preposition there may be: | ||
| − | a) a noun (or a noun group) | + | a) a noun (or a noun group): ''fo (for) molya (wife) – for wife'' |
| − | + | b) a verb: ''fo (for) miti (to meet) – in order to meet'' | |
| − | + | c) '''ke''' + phrase: ''fo (for) ke ("that") yu (you) samaji (to understand) – in order that you understand'' | |
| − | + | 1.2. If necessary, the preposition may be put after the word. In this case there has to be the particle '''den''': ''den kinda (child) om (about) – about the child'' | |
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| + | === 2. Simple prepositions === | ||
| − | 1. | + | 2.1. belonging: '''de''': ''kitaba (book) de boy (boy) – the book of the boy'' |
| − | + | 2.2. direction: '''a''': ''dai (to give) a me (I) – give me'' | |
| + | 2.3. purpose: '''fo''': ''dona (gift) fo yu (you) – a gift for you'' | ||
| − | 2. | + | 2.4. cause: '''por''': ''bu (not) lai (to come) por morba (desease) – not come because of a disease '' |
| − | 2. | + | 2.5. topic, object: '''om''': ''dumi (to think) om molya (wife) – to think about the wife'' |
| − | + | 2.6. with, without: '''kun, sin''': ''promeni (to walk) kun kinda (child) – to walk with the child, chay (tea) sin sukra (sugar) – tea without sugar'' | |
| − | 2. | + | 2.7. doer, tool: '''bay''': ''chi (to eat) bay chiza (spoon) – to eat with a spoon'', ''gana (song) (skriben (written)) bay Vysotski – a song by Vesotski'' |
| − | + | 2.8. object of action: '''an''': ''kansa (glance) an dom (house) – a glance at the house'' | |
| − | + | 2.9. accordance: '''segun''': ''plei (to play) segun regula (rule) – to play according to the rules'' | |
| − | 2. | + | 2.10. means: '''via''': ''en-jan (to learn) habar (news) via visin (neighbor) – to learn the news from the neighbor'' |
| − | + | 2.11. change, exchange: '''pur''': ''kupi (to buy) pur mani (money) – to buy with money, zwo (to do) pur amiga (friend) – to do instead of a friend'' | |
| − | + | 2.12. simultaneity, circumstances: '''al''': ''lagi (to lie) al lekti (to read) – to lie reading, al se (this) ta (he / she) en-stan *to stand up) - at this he / she stand up'' | |
| − | 2. | + | 2.13. material: '''aus''': ''kastela (castle) aus ramla (sand) – a castle (made) out of the sand'' |
| − | + | 2.14. characteristic feature: '''do''': ''okula (glasses) do surya (sun) – sunglasses'' | |
| − | 2. | + | 2.15. relation: '''relatem''': ''me (I) es (is / are/ am) neutrale (neutral) relatem sey (this) kwesta (question) – I'm neutral concerning this question'' |
| − | + | 2.16. support: '''pro''': ''li (they) shwo (say, talk) pro guverna (government) – they talk pro government'' | |
| − | 2. | + | 2.17. opposition: '''kontra''': ''kontra may (my) vola (will) – against my will'' |
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| − | + | === 3. Prepositions of correlations === | |
| − | + | 3.1. replacement: '''inplas''': ''onpon (to put on) jupa (skirt) inplas panta (trousers) – to put on the skirt instead of trousers'' | |
| − | + | 3.2. exception: '''exepte''': ''oli (all, everybody) exepte me (I) – everybody except me'' | |
| − | + | 3.3. besides: '''krome''': ''lu (he) hev (to have) mucho (many) amiga (friend) krome me (I) – he has a lot of friend besides me'' | |
| − | + | 3.4. concession: '''malgree''': ''nu (we) promeni (to walk) malgree pluva (rain) – we walk in spite of the rain'' | |
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| − | + | === 4. Prepositions of situation === | |
| − | + | '' (the mark '''komo''' means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb)'' | |
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| − | 4. Prepositions of situation (the mark komo means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb) | + | |
4.1. in limits: | 4.1. in limits: | ||
| − | a) in (in) | + | a) '''in''' (in): ''promeni (to walk) in shulin (forest) – to walk in a forest'' |
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| − | + | b) '''inen''' (inside (komo)): ''ye (there is) koysa (something) inen boxa (box) – there is something inside the box'' | |
| − | + | 4.2. outside: '''ausen''' (komo): ''may (my) oma (grandmother) jivi (lives) ausen urba (city) – my grandmother lives outside the city'' | |
| − | 4. | + | 4.3. near: '''bli''' (komo): ''skola (school) es (is) bli dom (house) – the school is near the house'' |
| − | + | 4.4. at the other side of: '''traen''' (komo): ''Es (is) tume (dark) traen winda (window). – It's dark outside (the window).'' | |
4.5. in relation to other things: | 4.5. in relation to other things: | ||
| − | a) inter (between) | + | a) '''inter''' (between): ''nu (we) es (is / are) inter skay (sky) e (and) arda (earth) – we are between the sky and the earth'' |
| − | + | b) '''miden''' (among): ''miden amigas (friends) – among the friends'' | |
| − | + | 4.6. linear sequence: '''bifoo''' (before), '''afte''' (after) | |
| − | + | - ''In (in) sey (this) fila (line, queue) yu (you) es (is / are) bifoo me (I) e (and) afte ela (she). – In this line you are before me and after | |
| + | her.'' | ||
| − | + | 4.7. sequence in space: '''avanen''' (in front of (komo)), '''baken''' (behind (komo)): ''avanen kolona – in front of the column, baken dwar – behind the door'' | |
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4.8. vertically: | 4.8. vertically: | ||
| − | a) on (on) | + | a) '''on''' (on): ''Kitaba (book) es (is / are) on tabla (table). – The book is on the table.'' |
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| − | + | b) '''sobre''' (above), '''sub''' (under): ''Papagay (parrot) flai (to fly) sobre tabla (table), kota (cat) sidi (to sit) sub lemar (wardrobe). – The parrot flies over the table, the cat sits under the wardrobe.'' | |
| − | + | c) '''uuparen''' (up, at the upper part of (komo)), '''nichen''' (at the lower part of (komo)): ''nichen kolina (hill) — at the bottom of the hill, fon (from) uuparen — from above'' | |
4.9. horizontally: | 4.9. horizontally: | ||
| − | a) flanken (at the side of (komo)) | + | a) '''flanken''' (at the side of (komo)): ''Flanken dom (house) ye (there is) garden (garden). – At the side of the house there is a garden.'' |
| − | + | b) '''leften''' (at the left (komo)), '''desnen''' (on the right (komo)): ''In (in) korpa (body) kordia (heart) es (is / are) leften. – In the body the heart is at the left.'' | |
| − | + | 4.10. around: '''sirkum''' (komo): ''sirkum dom (house) – around the house'' | |
| − | + | 4.11. opposition: '''kontra''' (komo): ''Teatra (theater) es (is / are) kontra sirkus (circus). – The theater is in front of the circus.'' | |
| − | 4. | + | 4.12. a typical place or feature: '''she''': ''Me (I) es (is / are) she me (I). – I am at mine.'' |
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| − | + | === 5. Prepositions of movement === | |
| − | + | (the mark komo means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb) | |
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| − | 5. Prepositions of movement (the mark komo means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb) | + | |
5.1. direction to: | 5.1. direction to: | ||
| − | a) a | + | a) '''a''': ''Me (I) zai ("continuous marker") go (to go) a dom (to the house). – I'm going (walking) to the house (home).'' |
| − | + | b) '''versu''': ''Treba (it is necessary) turni (to turn) versu dom (home). – One should turn towards home.'' | |
| − | + | 5.2. direction from: '''fon''': ''May (my) mata (mother) zai ("continuous marker") go (to go) fon dom (house) fo (for) miti (to meet) me (I). – My mother is walking from the house in order to meet me.'' | |
| − | + | 5.3. into: '''inu''' (komo): ''Bye (don't) stan (stand), go (go) inu dom (house). – Don’t stand, go into the house.'' | |
| − | 5. | + | 5.4. out of: '''aus''' (komo): ''Me (I) bu (not) mog (can) findi (to find) dao (way) aus shulin (forest). – I can't find the way out of the forest.'' |
| − | + | 5.5. through: '''tra''': ''Me (I) mog (can) vidi (to see) yu (you) tra winda (window). – I can see you through the window.'' | |
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| − | 5. | + | 5.6. along: '''along''': ''go (to go) along riva (river) – to go along the river'' |
| − | + | 5.7. vertically: '''uupar''' (up (komo)), '''nich''' (down (komo)): ''go (to go) uupar kolina (hill) – to go up the hill'' | |
| − | 5. | + | 5.8. horizontally: '''avan''' (forward, ahead (komo)), '''bak''' (back (komo)): ''go (to go) bak kamina (road) – to go back along the road'' |
| − | + | 5.9. impact: '''kontra''' (against): ''Me (I) apogi (lean) kontra mur (wall). – I lean against the wall.'' | |
| − | 5. | + | 5.10. past, by:''' pas''': ''Oni (one, they) go (go) pas e (and) bu (not) merki (to notice) nixa (nothing). – They are going past and don't notice anything.'' |
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| − | + | === 6. Prepositions of time === | |
| − | + | 6.1. period: '''fo''': ''me (I) pren (to take) it (it) fo tri (three) dey (day) – I take it for three days'' | |
| − | + | 6.2. duration: '''duran''': ''duran gwer (war) – during the war'' | |
| − | + | 6.3. beginning: '''depos''': ''Me (I) es (is / are / am) hir (here) depos klok (o'clock) sit (six). – I've been here since six o'clock.'' | |
| − | + | 6.4. limits: '''fon, til''': ''Me (I) majbur (to have to) bi (to be) hir (here) fon sabah (morning) til aksham (evening). – I have to be here from morning till evening.'' | |
| − | + | 6.5. in, after: '''afte''': | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) ve ("future tense") bi (to be) hir (here) afte (after) klok (o'clock) sit (six). - I'll be here after six o'clock.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) lai (to come) afte dwa (two) minuta (minute). - I'll be back in two minutes.'' | |
| − | + | 6.6. by: '''bifoo''' | |
| − | + | - ''Treba (to have to) zwo (to do) se (this) bifoo klok (o'clock) sem (seven). - You have to do (to have been done) that before seven o'clock. '' | |
| + | - ''Bifoo chifan (to have meal) gai (should) woshi (to wash) handas (hands) e (and) afte chifan (to have meal) gai (should) shwo (say) "danke" | ||
| + | (thank you). – Before meal one should wash the hands, and after the meal one should say "thank you". | ||
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| − | |||
| − | + | === 7. Prepositions of number === | |
| − | + | 7.1. approximate: '''sirke''': ''sirke dwa (two) metra (meter) – about two meters '' | |
| − | + | 7.2. distribution per unit: '''per''': ''dwa (two) dolar (dollars) per jen (man) – two dollars per head'' | |
| − | + | 7.3. distribution into portions: '''po''': ''Olo (all, everything) es (is / are) po dwa (two) dolar (dollar). – Everything costs two dollars each piece.'' | |
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| − | + | === 8. Preposition of general meaning: '''pa''' === | |
| − | + | - ''pa fortuna (luck) – fortunately'' | |
| − | + | - ''pa mur (wall) – at the wall '' | |
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| + | - ''shwo (to say, to talk) pa ruski (Russian) – to speak Russian'' | ||
== Conjunctions == | == Conjunctions == | ||
| − | |||
1. Conjunctions unite: either words of the same class or whole clauses. | 1. Conjunctions unite: either words of the same class or whole clauses. | ||
| − | 1.1. simple: | + | === 1.1. simple: === |
| − | a) combination: e (and) | + | a) combination: '''e''' (and) |
| − | + | - ''me (I) e yu (you) – me and you'' | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) janmog (to know how) rasmi (to draw) e gani (to sing). – I can draw and sing.'' | |
| − | b) contrasting: bat (but) | + | b) contrasting: '''bat''' (but) |
| − | + | -'' Me (I) janmog (to know how) rasmi (to draw), bat me (I) bu (not) janmog (to know how) gani (to sing). – I can draw, but I can't sing.'' | |
| − | c) alternative: o (oda) (or) | + | c) alternative: '''o''' (oda) (or) |
| − | + | - ''Pren (to take) sey (this) kitaba (book) o toy-la (that one). – Take this book or that one.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | + | === 1.2. doubled: === | |
| − | + | a) both...and: '''i .. i''': ''Me (I) lubi (to love) i yu (you) i ela (she). – I love both you and her.'' | |
| − | b) neither... nor: ni .. ni | + | b) neither... nor: '''ni .. ni''': ''Me (I) bu (not) yao (to want) vidi (to see) li (they), ni lu (he) ni ela (she). – I don't want to see them, neither him nor her.'' |
| − | + | c) either... or: '''oda .. oda''': ''Nu (we) sal (to be going to) hev (to have) oda son (son) oda docha (daughter). – We are going to have either a son or a daughter.'' | |
| − | + | d) '''nau .. nau''': ''Ta (he / she) shwo (to say, to talk) nau lautem (loudly), nau kyetem (quietly). - He / She is talking now loudly, now quietly.'' | |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | + | === 1.3. phrasal: === | |
| + | a) condition: '''si''': ''Me (I) lai (to come) si yu (you) yao (to want). – I will come if you want.'' | ||
| − | + | b) concession: '''obwol''': ''Ta (he / she) bu (not) lai (to come) obwol me (I) he ("past tense") pregi (to ask for). – He/she didn't come, though I had asked (her to come).'' | |
| − | + | c) purpose: '''dabe''': ''Me (I) shwo (to say, to talk) dabe yu (you) samaji (to understand) me (I). – I speak so that you understand me.'' | |
| − | + | d) cause: '''bikos''' (because), '''sikom''' (as, for) | |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) lai (to come) bikos yu (you) pregi (to ask for). – I come because you asks (for it).'' | |
| − | + | - ''Sikom yu (you) bu (not) pregi (to ask for), me (I) bu (not) ve ("future tense") lai (to come). – As you don't ask (for it), I won't come.'' | |
| − | come | + | |
| − | + | e) sudden circumstance: '''ewalaa''' | |
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| − | e) sudden circumstance: ewalaa | + | |
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| + | - ''Me (I) zai ("continuous marker") somni (to sleep) ewalaa baji (to ring) gro (much). – I'm sleeping, and suddenly it rings a lot.'' | ||
| + | f) opposition: '''yedoh''' | ||
| + | - ''Me (I) koni (to know, to be acquainted) yu (you) yedoh me (I) bu (not) koni (to know, to be acquainted) yur (your) sista (sister). – I know you, however I don't know your sister.'' | ||
== Numerals == | == Numerals == | ||
| − | |||
1. Words denoting a number (with all such words the basic form of noun is used) | 1. Words denoting a number (with all such words the basic form of noun is used) | ||
| − | 1.1. basic numerals | + | === 1.1. basic numerals === |
a) units | a) units | ||
| − | nol (0) | + | '''nol''' (0) |
| − | + | ||
| − | + | ||
| − | sit (6), sem (7), ot (8), nin (9), shi (10) | + | '''un''' (1), '''dwa''' (2), '''tri''' (3), '''char''' (4), '''pet''' (5), '''sit''' (6), '''sem''' (7), '''ot''' (8), '''nin''' (9), '''shi''' (10) |
a) tens | a) tens | ||
| − | dwashi (20), trishi (30), charshi (40) ... ninshi (90) (written as one word) | + | '''dwashi''' (20), '''trishi''' (30), '''charshi''' (40) ... '''ninshi''' (90) ''(written as one word)'' |
b) hundreds | b) hundreds | ||
| − | sto (100), dwasto (200), tristo (300) ... ninsto (900) (written as one word) | + | '''sto''' (100), '''dwasto''' (200), '''tristo''' (300) ... '''ninsto''' (900) ''(written as one word)'' |
| − | c) thousand: mil (1000) (written in several words) | + | c) thousand: '''mil''' (1000) ''(written in several words)'' |
| − | d) million: milion (1.000.000) (written in several words) | + | d) million: '''milion''' (1.000.000) ''(written in several words)'' |
e) numbers | e) numbers | ||
| − | shi-un (11), shi-dwa (12), shi-tri (13) ... shi-nin (19) | + | '''shi-un''' (11), '''shi-dwa''' (12), '''shi-tri''' (13) ... '''shi-nin''' (19) |
| − | dwashi-un (21), petshi-sem (57) | + | '''dwashi-un''' (21), '''petshi-sem''' (57) |
22 957 = dwashi-dwa mil ninsto-petshi-sem | 22 957 = dwashi-dwa mil ninsto-petshi-sem | ||
| − | 1.2. Fractions: -fen | + | 1.2. Fractions: -'''fen''' |
| − | + | - ''un dwafen – 1/2'' | |
| − | + | - ''sem shifen – 7/10; 0,7'' | |
| − | + | - ''tri koma pet – 3,5'' | |
| + | === Deriven worda === | ||
1.3. Adjectives: | 1.3. Adjectives: | ||
| − | a) un-ney (the first), dwa-ney (the second), tri-ney (the third) ... | + | a) -'''ney''': un-ney (the first), dwa-ney (the second), tri-ney (the third) ... |
| − | b) unple (single), dwaple (double) ... | + | b) -'''ple''': unple (single), dwaple (double) ... |
| Line 1,833: | Line 1,450: | ||
1.4. Adverbs: | 1.4. Adverbs: | ||
| − | a) un-nem (firstly), dwa-nem (secondly) ... | + | a) -'''nem''': un-nem (firstly), dwa-nem (secondly) ... |
| − | b) dwaplem (twice), triplem (three times as much) ... | + | b) -'''plem''': dwaplem (twice), triplem (three times as much) ... |
| Line 1,841: | Line 1,458: | ||
1.5. Nouns: | 1.5. Nouns: | ||
| − | a) unka (one), dwaka (two) ... | + | a) -'''ka''': unka (one), dwaka (two) ... |
| − | b) haf (half), para (pair) | + | b) '''haf''' (half), '''para''' (pair) |
| − | 1.6. Pronouns | + | === 1.6. Pronouns === |
| − | a) mucho (many, much) | + | a) '''mucho''' (many, much) |
| − | b) pluri (several) | + | b) '''pluri''' (several) |
| − | c) kelke (some) | + | c) '''kelke''' (some) |
| − | d) idyen (a little, a few) | + | d) '''idyen''' (a little, a few) |
| − | e) shao (little, few) | + | e) '''shao''' (little, few) |
| − | + | - ''Me (I) vidi (to see) mucho (many, much) flor (flower). – I see a lot of flowers.'' | |
| − | + | - ''Ta (he/she) hev (to have) shao (little, few) kalam (pencil). – He/she has few pencils.'' | |
| − | f) zuy mucho = maiste, zuy shao = minim | + | f) zuy mucho = '''maiste''', zuy shao = '''minim''' |
| − | + | - ''Lu (he) hev (to have) minim bonbon (sweet). – He has the smallest amount of sweets.'' | |
| − | g) kwanto (how many. how much) | + | g) '''kwanto''' (how many. how much) |
| − | h) tanto (so, to such extent) | + | h) '''tanto''' (so, to such extent) |
| − | 2. Date | + | === 2. Date === |
| − | 2.1. days of the week: numeral + di | + | 2.1. days of the week: numeral + '''di''' |
a) undi (Monday) | a) undi (Monday) | ||
| Line 1,916: | Line 1,533: | ||
l) desemba = mes-shi-dwa (December) | l) desemba = mes-shi-dwa (December) | ||
| − | + | - ''dey trishi-un de mes-shi-dwa – the 31th of December'' | |
| − | + | - ''dey 21 mes 9 yar 1945 – 21.9.1945'' | |
| − | 3. O'clock: | + | 3. O'clock: '''klok''' |
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| + | -''klok dwa – two o'clock'' | ||
| + | - ''klok sem sin pet – five before seven o'clock'' | ||
| + | - ''klok sit e haf – half past six'' | ||
== Exclamations == | == Exclamations == | ||
| − | 1. Greetings | + | === 1. Greetings === |
| − | 1.1. Swasti! – (universal greeting) Be happy! Let the peace be on the Earth! | + | 1.1. '''Swasti'''! – (universal greeting) Be happy! Let the peace be on the Earth! |
1.2. Compound greetings | 1.2. Compound greetings | ||
| − | a) Hao sabah! – Good morning! | + | a) '''Hao sabah'''! – Good morning! |
| − | b) Hao dey! – Good afternoon! | + | b) '''Hao dey'''! – Good afternoon! |
| − | c) Hao aksham! – Good evening! | + | c) '''Hao aksham'''! – Good evening! |
| + | |||
| + | d) '''Hao nocha'''! – Good night! | ||
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1.3. Simple greetings | 1.3. Simple greetings | ||
| − | a) Salam! Heloo! Ola! – Hello! | + | a) '''Salam! Heloo! Ola!''' – Hello! |
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| + | b) '''Namastee! Nihao!''' – Hello! How do you do! | ||
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1.4. Bye | 1.4. Bye | ||
| − | a) Chao! – Bye! | + | a) '''Chao'''! – Bye! |
| − | b) Adyoo! – Good bye! | + | b) '''Adyoo'''! – Good bye! |
| − | 2. Politeness words | + | === 2. Politeness words === |
2.1. Thankfulness | 2.1. Thankfulness | ||
| − | a) Danke! Shukran! – Thank you! | + | a) '''Danke! Shukran'''! – Thank you! |
| − | b) Danke gro! – Thank you very much! | + | b) '''Danke gro'''! – Thank you very much! |
| + | |||
| + | c) '''Bi hao!''' – You are welcome! | ||
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2.2 Excuse | 2.2 Excuse | ||
| − | Skusi! – Excuse me! | + | '''Skusi'''! – Excuse me! |
| + | |||
2.3. Request | 2.3. Request | ||
| − | a) Plis – please (when asking) | + | a) '''Plis''' – please (when asking) |
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| + | b) '''Bi karim''' – be kind | ||
| + | 2.4. '''Swaagat!''' – Welcome! | ||
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| − | + | === 3. Interjections === | |
| − | + | a) '''Afsos'''! – Alas! | |
| − | + | b) '''Kamon'''! – Come on! | |
| + | c) '''wel''' – well | ||
| + | {{Lingwa de Planeta}} | ||
| − | [[Category:Gramatika]] | + | [[Category:Gramatika de Lingwa de Planeta]] |
| + | [[Category:Lingwa de Planeta pa inglish]] | ||
