Gramatika pa inglish

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(Word stress)
(Compound Sentence)
 
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{{Gramatika}}
  
 
== The alphabet and pronounciation ==
 
== The alphabet and pronounciation ==
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Basic vowels: '''a, o, u, i, e'''
 
Basic vowels: '''a, o, u, i, e'''
 
  
 
Vowels in Lidepla, unlike English ones, are regular and never change pronunciation. The situation is the same as in languages like Italian and Spanish.
 
Vowels in Lidepla, unlike English ones, are regular and never change pronunciation. The situation is the same as in languages like Italian and Spanish.
  
 +
Some examples of one syllable words with the basic vowels ''(in italics there is a close (in pronunciation) English word; also the meaning of the Lidepla words is given):''
  
Some examples of one syllable words with the basic vowels (in italics there is a close (in pronunciation) English word; also the meaning of the Lidepla words is given):
+
ba ''(bar)'' – (an imperative particle)
  
ba ''(bar)'' – (an imperative particle), do ''(door)'' – (the preposition introducing a characteristic feature),
+
do ''(door)'' – (the preposition introducing a characteristic feature)
ku ''(coo(l))'' – (a question particle),
+
li ''(lea(d))'' – they,
+
me ''(me(n))'' – I, me
+
  
 +
ku ''(coo(l))'' – (a question particle)
  
Also the letter "'''y'''" is used. It sounds generally the same as "'''i'''", but is never stressed. One can say that it corresponds to the English "y".
+
li ''(lea(d))'' – they
  
For example:
+
me ''(me(n))'' – I, me
  
ya ''(yah)'' – yes,
+
Also the letter "'''y'''" is used. It sounds generally the same as "'''i'''", but is never stressed. One can say that it corresponds to the English "y". For example: ya ''(yah)'' – yes,
 
yo ''(yore)'' – already,
 
yo ''(yore)'' – already,
 
yu ''(you)'' – you,
 
yu ''(you)'' – you,
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may ''(my)'' – my,
 
may ''(my)'' – my,
 
ley ''(lay)'' – their
 
ley ''(lay)'' – their
 
  
  
 
=== Consonants ===
 
=== Consonants ===
  
'''b, d, g'''
+
'''b, d, g''': bu ''(boo)'' – not,
 
+
bu ''(boo)'' – not,
+
 
de ''(dea(f))'' – of,
 
de ''(dea(f))'' – of,
 
ga ''(gar)'' – completely
 
ga ''(gar)'' – completely
  
 
+
'''p, t, k''' (with aspiration): pan ''(pun)'' – bread,
 
+
'''p, t, k''' (with aspiration):
+
 
+
pan ''(pun)'' – bread,
+
 
tak ''(tuck)'' – so
 
tak ''(tuck)'' – so
  
 +
'''z''' ([dz]): zun ''([dzun])'' – occupy oneself
  
 
+
'''j, ch''': jan ''(jun(to))'' – to know,
'''z''' ([dz]):
+
 
+
zun ''([dzun])'' – occupy oneself
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
'''j, ch''':
+
 
+
jan ''(jun(to))'' – to know,
+
 
chay ''(chi(ld))'' – tea
 
chay ''(chi(ld))'' – tea
  
 
+
'''w / v, f''': fa ''(far)'' – (to grow/get),
 
+
'''w / v, f'''  
+
 
+
fa ''(far)'' – (to grow/get),
+
 
wo ''(wore)'' – where
 
wo ''(wore)'' – where
  
 
+
'''s''' (as in English, it may be voiced between vowels), '''sh''': se ''(se(t))'' – this (noun),
 
+
'''s''' (as in English, it may be voiced between vowels), '''sh'''
+
 
+
se ''(se(t))'' – this (noun),
+
 
shu ''(shoe)'' – shoe
 
shu ''(shoe)'' – shoe
  
 +
'''h''': hu ''(who)'' – who
  
 +
'''m, n, r, l''': man ''(mun)'' – man, la ''(lar)'' – (used not to repeat a noun), ruf ''(roof)'' – roof
  
'''h'''
+
The letter "'''x'''" sounds as a combination "gs" (before a consonant my be pronounced as simple "s"; like the English “x”, may be voiced between vowels, as in “exam”): ex ''(ex)'' – ex
 
+
hu ''(who)'' – who
+
 
+
 
+
'''m, n, r, l'''
+
 
+
man ''(mun)'' – man,
+
 
+
la ''(lar)'' – (used not to repeat a noun),
+
 
+
ruf ''(roof)'' – roof
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
The letter "'''x'''" sounds as a combination "gs" (before a consonant my be pronounced as simple "s"; like the English “x”, may be voiced between vowels, as in “exam”):
+
 
+
ex ''(ex)'' – ex
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
The combination '''ng''' is pronounced as the English ng:
+
 
+
bruing ''(brewing)'' – brewing
+
 
+
 
+
  
 +
The combination '''ng''' is pronounced as the English ng: bruing ''(brewing)'' – brewing
  
 
=== Word stress ===
 
=== Word stress ===
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The general rule is as follows: the vowel before the last consonant or "y" is stressed.
 
The general rule is as follows: the vowel before the last consonant or "y" is stressed.
  
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Thus, if the word ends in a consonant, the last syllable is stressed: kalAm – pencil, sabAh – morning
  
 +
If the word ends in a vowel, the syllable before the last one is stressed: mAta – mother, kitAba – book, famIlia – family
  
Thus, if the word ends in a consonant, the last syllable is stressed:
+
The "'''y'''" itself is never stressed, it can affect the stress position though: dEy – day, ruchEy – brook
 
+
kalAm – pencil,
+
sabAh – morning
+
 
+
 
+
If the word ends in a vowel, the syllable before the last one is stressed:
+
 
+
mAta – mother,
+
kitAba – book,
+
famIlia – family
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
The "y" itself is never stressed, it can affect the stress position though:  
+
 
+
dEy – day,
+
ruchEy – brook
+
 
+
 
+
If there are 2 vowels in the syllablem one should remember that "u" and "i" in combinations (au, eu, ai, ei, oi) are not stressed, and "o" is
+
not stressed in "ao":
+
  
dao – way,
+
If there are 2 vowels in the syllable, one should remember that "u" and "i" in combinations (au, eu, ai, ei, oi) are not stressed, and "o" is
 +
not stressed in "ao": dao – way,
 
auto – car,
 
auto – car,
 
euro – euro,
 
euro – euro,
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-'''en''' (exAmen – exam, Iven – even)
 
-'''en''' (exAmen – exam, Iven – even)
  
 
+
Endings -'''ik'''- and -'''ul'''- in simple (not compound) nouns and adjectives are not stressed: gramAtika – grammar, pUblika – audience, Afrika – Africa, polItike – politic, lOgike – logic, stImula – stimulus, fAbula – fairy-tale, fOrmula – formule
 
+
Endings -'''ik'''- and -'''ul'''- in simple (not compound) nouns and adjectives are not stressed:
+
 
+
gramAtika – grammar, pUblika – audience, Afrika – Africa, polItike – politic, lOgike – logic
+
 
+
stImula – stimulus, fAbula – fairy-tale, fOrmula – formule
+
 
+
  
 
-'''im''' in "mInim" (the least), "mInimum", "mAximum" is not stressed.
 
-'''im''' in "mInim" (the least), "mInimum", "mAximum" is not stressed.
  
 
+
In some special cases the non-standard stress is indicated by doubled vowel: adyoo – bye, namastee – hello, how do you do
 
+
In some special cases the non-standard stress is indicated by doubled vowel:
+
 
+
adyoo – bye, namastee – hello, how do you do
+
  
  
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Compound words retain the stress of the components.
 
Compound words retain the stress of the components.
  
 +
The stress doesn't change when using the following:
  
 +
- the plural form of nouns (+ (e)s): kitAba / kitAbas – book / books, man / mAnes – man / men
  
The stress doesn't change when using the following:
+
- adverbs formed from adjectives: jamIle / jamIlem – beautiful / beautifully
 
+
  
● the plural form of nouns (+ (e)s): kitAba / kitAbas book / books, man / mAnes – man / men
+
- nouns formed from verbs: lOpi / lOping run / running
  
● adverbs formed from adjectives: jamIle / jamIlem – beautiful / beautifully
 
  
● nouns formed from verbs: lOpi / lOping – run / running
 
  
 
== Simple sentence ==
 
== Simple sentence ==
  
 +
1. Word order in a clause: subject – predicate – object (usually)
  
1. Word order in a clause
+
- ''Me (I) lubi (to love) yu (you). – I love you.''
  
1.1. subject – predicate – object (usually)
+
To mark the change of the word order special particles are used:
 
+
● Me (I) lubi (to love) yu (you). – I love you.
+
 
+
1.2. To mark the change of the word order special particles are used:
+
  
 
a) da (before the subject)
 
a) da (before the subject)
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b) den (before the object):
 
b) den (before the object):
  
Lubi (to love) da me (I). – I love.
+
- ''Lubi (to love) da me (I). – I love.''
  
Den yu (you) me (I) lubi (to love). – I love you. It's you whom I love.
+
- ''Den yu (you) me (I) lubi (to love). – I love you. It's you whom I love.''
  
  
2. Word order in a phrase
 
  
2.1. Adjective is before a noun (usually).
+
2. Word order in a phrase: adjective is before a noun (usually).
  
Es (is/are) may (my) syao (little) son (son). – That's my little son.
+
- ''Es (is/are) may (my) syao (little) son (son). – That's my little son.''
  
 +
To emphasize the adjective, it can be placed after the noun.
  
2.2. To emphasize the adjective, it can be placed after the noun.
+
- ''Me (I) pri (to like) elay (her) gran (big) okos (eyes) blu (blue). – I like her big blue eyes.''
 
+
Me (I) pri (to like) elay (her) gran (big) okos (eyes) blu (blue). – I like her big blue eyes.
+
  
  
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3. Predicative adjectives and nominals
 
3. Predicative adjectives and nominals
  
May (my) mata (mother) es (is) talimer (teacher). – My mother is a teacher.
+
- ''May (my) mata (mother) es (is) talimer (teacher). – My mother is a teacher.''
  
May (my) sista (sister) yao (to want) bikam (to become) leker (doctor). – My sister wants to become a doctor.
+
- ''May (my) sista (sister) yao (to want) bikam (to become) leker (doctor). – My sister wants to become a doctor.''
  
Sey (this) gela (girl) es (is) muy (very) jamile (beautiful). – This girl is very beautiful.
+
- ''Sey (this) gela (girl) es (is) muy (very) jamile (beautiful). – This girl is very beautiful.''
  
Es (is) jamile (beautiful) hir (here). – It's beautiful here.
+
- ''Es (is) jamile (beautiful) hir (here). – It's beautiful here.''
  
4. Impersonal sentence (without the subject)
 
  
● Pluvi (to rain) gro (much). – It rains / is raining much.
 
  
● Treba (it's necessary) shwo (to talk). – It's necessary to talk.
+
4. Impersonal sentence (without the subject)
  
● Es (is) garme (hot). – It's hot.
+
- ''Pluvi (to rain) gro (much). – It rains / is raining much.''
  
5. Negation
+
- ''Treba (it's necessary) shwo (to talk). – It's necessary to talk.''
  
5.1 Negation particle bu is placed before the verb group.
+
- ''Es (is) garme (hot). – It's hot.''
  
● Lu (he) bu (not) somni (to sleep). – He doesn't sleep / isn't sleeping.
 
  
● Me (I) bu (not) wud (would) yao (to want) resti (to remain) dar (there). – I won't stay there.
 
  
5.2 If there is at least one negative word in the phrase, the whole phrase gets a negative meaning. If there are several of them, that only emphasizes the negative meaning.
+
5. Negation: negation particle bu is placed before the verb group.
  
Lu (he) bu (not) samaji (to understand) nixa (nothing), neva (never)! – He doesn't understand anything, ever!
+
- ''Lu (he) bu (not) somni (to sleep). – He doesn't sleep / isn't sleeping.''
  
6. General question
+
- ''Me (I) bu (not) wud (would) yao (to want) resti (to remain) dar (there). – I won't stay there.''
  
6.1. The particle ob (is placed before the phrase):
+
If there is at least one negative word in the phrase, the whole phrase gets a negative meaning. If there are several of them, that only emphasizes the negative meaning.
  
● Ob yu (you) lubi (to love) me (I)? Do you love me?
+
- ''Lu (he) bu (not) samaji (to understand) nixa (nothing), neva (never)! He doesn't understand anything, ever!''
  
6.2. Possible answers: ya (yes), non (no), doh
 
  
a) Ob yu lubi me? – Ya, me lubi. Non, me bu lubi. –
 
  
Do you love me? – Yes, I do. No, I don't.
+
6. General question: the particle '''ob''' (is placed before the phrase):
  
b) Ob yu bu lubi me? – Ya / non, me bu lubi. Doh, me lubi. –
+
- ''Ob yu (you) lubi (to love) me (I)? – Do you love me?''
  
Don't you love me? – No, I don't. Yes, I do.
+
Possible answers: '''ya''' (yes), '''non''' (no), '''doh'''
  
6.3. Other ways to make a general question:
+
a) Ob yu lubi me? – Ya, me lubi. Non, me bu lubi. – Do you love me? – Yes, I do. No, I don't.
  
a) "bu ver?" (is placed after a phrase, with a comma):
+
b) Ob yu bu lubi me? – Ya / non, me bu lubi. Doh, me lubi. – Don't you love me? – No, I don't. Yes, I do.
  
● Es (is) hao (good) meteo (weather), bu (not) ver (really)? – The weather is good, isn't it?
 
  
Possible answers: ver (yes, it's true), bu es ver (no, it isn't true).
 
  
b) Repeating of the verb with "bu" particle:
+
Other ways to make a general question:
  
● Yu lai-bu-lai? – Are you coming (or not)?
+
a) "'''bu ver'''?" (is placed after a phrase, with a comma):
  
7. Special question
+
- ''Es (is) hao (good) meteo (weather), bu (not) ver (really)? – The weather is good, isn't it?''
  
In a special question the question word is put in the beginning of the phrase, the word order doesn't change. The inversion can occur only in the phrase with the verb "bi / es/ bin": Wo (where) es (is) may (my) kalam (pencil)? – Where is my pencil?
+
Possible answers: '''ver''' (yes, it's true), '''bu es ver''' (no, it isn't true).
  
7.1. hu – who
+
b) Repeating of the verb with "bu" particle:
  
● Hu (who) somni (to sleep)? – Who sleeps?
+
- ''Yu lai-bu-lai? – Are you coming (or not)?''
  
7.2. kwo – what
 
  
● Kwo (what) yu (you) vidi (to see)? – What do you see?
 
  
7.3. kwel – what sort of, which
+
7. Special question
  
● Kwel (what) flor (flower) yu (you) pri (to like)? – What flower do you like?
+
In a special question the question word is put in the beginning of the phrase, the word order doesn't change. The inversion can occur only in the phrase with the verb "bi / es/ bin": Wo (where) es (is) may (my) kalam (pencil)? – Where is my pencil?
  
7.4. komo how
+
'''hu''' who: ''Hu (who) somni (to sleep)? – Who sleeps?''
  
● Komo (how) yu (you) zwo (to make) se (this)? – How do you make this / have you made this?
+
'''kwo''' – what: ''Kwo (what) yu (you) vidi (to see)? – What do you see?''
  
7.5. way why
+
'''kwel''' what sort of, which: ''Kwel (what) flor (flower) yu (you) pri (to like)? – What flower do you like?''
  
● Way (why) yu (you) bu (not) somni (to sleep)? – Why don't you sleep?
+
'''komo''' – how: ''Komo (how) yu (you) zwo (to make) se (this)? – How do you make this / have you made this?''
  
7.6. wen when
+
'''way''' why: ''Way (why) yu (you) bu (not) somni (to sleep)? – Why don't you sleep?''
  
Wen (when) yu (you) lai (to come)? – When are you coming?
+
'''wen''' – when: ''Wen (when) yu (you) lai (to come)? – When are you coming?''
  
7.7. wo – where
+
'''wo''' – where: ''Wo (where) es (is) may (my) docha (daughter)? – Where is my daughter?''
  
● Wo (where) es (is) may (my) docha (daughter)? – Where is my daughter?
+
'''a wo''' – where, to what direction: ''A wo (where) yu (you) yao (to want) go (to go)? – Where do you want to go?''
  
7.8. a wo – where, to what direction
+
'''fon wo''' – where from: ''Fon wo (where from) yu (you) lai (to come)? – Where do you come from?''
  
● A wo (where) yu (you) yao (to want) go (to go)? – Where do you want to go?
+
'''kwanto''' – how many, how much: ''Kwanto (how many) bonbon (sweets) yu (you) he ("past tense") chi (to eat)? – How many sweets have you eaten?''
  
7.9. fon wo – where from
 
  
● Fon wo (where from) yu (you) lai (to come)? – Where do you come from?
 
  
7.10. kwanto – how many, how much
+
8. Emphasizing of the whole phrase meaning: '''ya''' (before or after the predicate)
  
● Kwanto (how many) bonbon (sweets) yu (you) he ("past tense") chi (to eat)? How many sweets have you eaten?
+
- ''Me (I) ya lubi (to love) yu (you)! I love you indeed!''
  
8. Emphasizing of the whole phrase meaning: ya (before or after the predicate)
+
- ''Es (is) ya hao (good) dey (day)! – What a good day!''
  
● Me (I) ya lubi (to love) yu (you)! – I love you indeed!
 
  
● Es (is) ya hao (good) dey (day)! – What a good day!
 
  
 +
9. Emphasizing of a single word: '''hi''' (in assertion), '''ku''' (in a question)
  
9. Emphasizing of a single word: hi (in assertion), ku (in a question)
+
- ''Me (I) hi bu (not) yao (to want) somni (to sleep). – Personally I don't want to sleep.''
 
+
Me (I) hi bu (not) yao (to want) somni (to sleep). – Personally I don't want to sleep.
+
 
+
● Yu (you) ku bu (not) yao (to want) somni (to sleep)? – Is it you who doesn't want to sleep?
+
 
+
  
 +
- ''Yu (you) ku bu (not) yao (to want) somni (to sleep)? – Is it you who doesn't want to sleep?''
  
 
== Compound Sentence ==
 
== Compound Sentence ==
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1. The sentence topic: one can specialize the topic of the sentence at the beginning.
 
1. The sentence topic: one can specialize the topic of the sentence at the beginning.
  
Sey (this) aksham (evening), ob ("if") yu (you) ve ("will") go (to go) a ("to") koylok (somewhere)? – Are you going somewhere tonight?
+
- ''Sey (this) aksham (evening), ob ("if") yu (you) ve ("will") go (to go) a ("to") koylok (somewhere)? – Are you going somewhere tonight?''
  
 
2. Simple sentences may be combined into complex ones by conjunctions or combination "preposition + ke":  
 
2. Simple sentences may be combined into complex ones by conjunctions or combination "preposition + ke":  
  
Me (I) pri (to like) gani (to sing) e (and) yu (you) pri (to like) rasmi (to draw). – I like to sing and you like to draw.
+
- ''Me (I) pri (to like) gani (to sing) e (and) yu (you) pri (to like) rasmi (to draw). – I like to sing and you like to draw.''
  
Me (I) wud ("would") yao (to want) lekti (to read) bat (but) kitaba (book) yok (there is no). – I would like to read but there is no book.
+
''- Me (I) wud ("would") yao (to want) lekti (to read) bat (but) kitaba (book) yok (there is no). – I would like to read but there is no book.''
 +
 
 +
''- Me (I) promeni (to go walking) obwol (although) pluvi (to rain). – I'm walking although it's raining.''
 +
 
 +
''- Me (I) mog (can) go (go) adar (there), bat (but) sol (only) kun (with) ke ("that") yu (you) go (to go) toshi (too). – I can go there, but only if you also go.''
  
● Me (I) promeni (to go walking) obwol (although) pluvi (to rain). – I'm walking although it's raining.
 
  
● Me (I) mog (can) go (go) adar (there), bat (but) sol (only) kun (with) ke ("that") yu (you) go (to go) toshi (too). – I can go there, but only if you also go.
 
  
 
3. One simple sentence may be a constituent of another sentence. It may take place of:
 
3. One simple sentence may be a constituent of another sentence. It may take place of:
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3.1. the object
 
3.1. the object
  
a) with the conjunction ke:
+
a) with the conjunction '''ke''':
  
Me (I) vidi (to see) ke ("that") ela (she) rasmi (to draw). – I can see that she is drawing.
+
''- Me (I) vidi (to see) ke ("that") ela (she) rasmi (to draw). – I can see that she is drawing.''
  
b) with preposition + the conjunction ke:
+
b) with preposition + the particle '''ke''':
  
Me (I) shwo (talk) om (about) ke ("that") yu (you) bu (not) gun (to work). – I talk about the fact that you don't work.
+
''- Me (I) shwo (talk) om (about) ke ("that") yu (you) bu (not) gun (to work). – I talk about the fact that you don't work.''
  
 
c) with the particle ob:
 
c) with the particle ob:
  
Me (I) bu (not) jan (to know) ob ("if") ta (he / she) es (is) in (in) dom (house). – I don't know if he / she is at home.
+
- ''Me (I) bu (not) jan (to know) ob ("if") ta (he / she) es (is) in (in) dom (house). – I don't know if he / she is at home.''
  
 
d) with a question word:
 
d) with a question word:
  
Me (I) jan (to know) kwo (what) yu (you) yao (to want). – I know what you want.
+
- ''Me (I) jan (to know) kwo (what) yu (you) yao (to want). – I know what you want.''
  
 
e) After perception verbs (vidi (to see), kan (to look), audi (to hear), slu (to listen) etc.) there are can be "noun + participle"  
 
e) After perception verbs (vidi (to see), kan (to look), audi (to hear), slu (to listen) etc.) there are can be "noun + participle"  
 
combination:
 
combination:
  
Me (I) vidi (to see) ela (her) rasmi-she (drawing). – I see her draw.
+
- ''Me (I) vidi (to see) ela (her) rasmi-she (drawing). – I see her draw.''
  
3.2. attribute
 
  
a) If the attribute phrase is before the noun, use ti .. na to mark it:
 
  
● { Ti yu (you) vidi (to see) na boy (boy) } janmog (can) gani (to sing) hao (well). – The boy that you see can sing well.
+
3.2. attribute
  
b) If the attribute phrase is after the noun, it is introduced by the conjunction ke:
+
a) If the attribute phrase is before the noun, use '''ti .. na''' to mark it:
  
{ Boy (boy) ke ("that") yu (you) vidi (to see) } janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly). – The boy that you see can sing beautifully.
+
- ''{ Ti yu (you) vidi (to see) na boy (boy) } janmog (can) gani (to sing) hao (well). – The boy that you see can sing well.''
  
● { To (that) ke ("that") yu (you) shwo (to say) } es (is) hao (good). – The thing that you are talking about is good.
+
b) If the attribute phrase is after the noun, it is introduced by the particle '''ke''':
  
c) The attribute phrase may have the same subject as the main phrase. In this case the pronoun kel (..na) is used:
+
- ''{ Boy (boy) ke ("that") yu (you) vidi (to see) } janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly). – The boy that you see can sing beautifully.''
  
● Me (I) vidi (to see) boy (boy) { kel janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly)}. – I see the boy who can sing beautifully.
+
- ''{ To (that) ke ("that") yu (you) shwo (to say) } es (is) hao (good). – The thing that you are talking about is good.''
  
● Boy (boy) kel janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly) na es (is / are) hir (here). - The boy who can sing beatifully is here.
+
c) The attribute phrase may have the same subject as the main phrase. In this case the pronoun '''kel''' (..na) is used:
  
 +
- ''Me (I) vidi (to see) boy (boy) { kel janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly)}. – I see the boy who can sing beautifully.''
  
3.3. predicative:
+
- ''Boy (boy) kel janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) gro-hao (greatly) na es (is / are) hir (here). - The boy who can sing beatifully is here.''
  
a) with the particle ke:
 
  
● May (my) opina (opinion) es (is) { ke ("that") yu (you) es (is / are) verem (truly) jamile (beautiful) }. – My opinion is that you are
 
really beautiful.
 
  
 +
3.3. predicative:
  
 +
a) with the particle '''ke''':
 +
 +
- ''May (my) opina (opinion) es (is) { ke ("that") yu (you) es (is / are) verem (truly) jamile (beautiful) }. – My opinion is that you are
 +
really beautiful.''
  
 
== Word ==
 
== Word ==
 +
  
  
 
=== 1. Noun ===
 
=== 1. Noun ===
  
Examples: jen (human), arda (earth), flor (flower), animal (animal).
+
Examples: ''jen (human), arda (earth), flor (flower), animal (animal).
 +
''
  
 
1.1 Number
 
1.1 Number
Line 425: Line 332:
 
a) The basic form of a noun doesn't convey the number:
 
a) The basic form of a noun doesn't convey the number:
  
jen – a human / many humans
+
- ''jen – a human / many humans''
  
un (one) jen – a human
+
- ''un (one) jen – a human''
  
dwa (two) jen – two humans
+
- ''dwa (two) jen – two humans''
  
mucho (many) jen – many humans
+
- ''mucho (many) jen – many humans''
  
jenes – humans
+
- ''jenes – humans''
  
b) plural form (the stressed vowel doesn't change):
 
  
if the word ends with a vowel: + s
+
b) plural form (the stressed vowel doesn't change):  
  
un kitaba (a book) – kitabas, un tabla (a table) – tablas
+
if the word ends with a vowel: + s: ''un kitaba (a book) – kitabas, un tabla (a table) – tablas''
  
if the word ends with a consnant: + es
+
if the word ends with a consnant: + es: ''un flor (a flower) – flores, un animal (an animal) – animales''
  
● un flor (a flower) – flores, un animal (an animal) – animales
 
  
  
Line 452: Line 357:
 
b) The change of the word order is indicated by the particle den:
 
b) The change of the word order is indicated by the particle den:
  
Den sey (this) flor (flower) me (I) pri (to like). – I like this flower.
+
- ''Den sey (this) flor (flower) me (I) pri (to like). – I like this flower.''
  
den dom (house) sobre (above) – above the house
+
- ''den dom (house) sobre (above) – above the house''
  
 
c) Nominative marker is da (used only when necessary):
 
c) Nominative marker is da (used only when necessary):
  
Mata (mother) samaji (to understand) me (I) sam (same) hao (good, well) kom (as) da yu (you). – Mother understands me as well as you do.
+
- ''Mata (mother) samaji (to understand) me (I) sam (same) hao (good, well) kom (as) da yu (you). – Mother understands me as well as you do.''
  
Mata (mother) samaji (to understand) me (I) sam (same) hao (good, well) kom (as) den yu (you). – Mother understands me as well as you.
+
- ''Mata (mother) samaji (to understand) me (I) sam (same) hao (good, well) kom (as) den yu (you). – Mother understands me as well as you.''
  
  
1.3. Gender:
 
  
a) Nouns don't belong to any gender.
+
1.3. Gender:
  
amiga – friend (male or female)
+
a) Nouns don't belong to any gender: ''amiga – friend (male or female)''
  
 
b) One can specify the sex of a human by:
 
b) One can specify the sex of a human by:
  
particles man- and gin-  
+
particles '''man'''- and '''gin'''-  
  
leker (doctor) – man-leker (male-doctor) – gin-leker (female doctor)
+
- ''leker (doctor) – man-leker (male-doctor) – gin-leker (female doctor)''
  
kota (cat) – man-kota (male-cat) – gin-kota (female-cat)
+
- ''kota (cat) – man-kota (male-cat) – gin-kota (female-cat)''
  
changing "a" with -o and -ina:
+
changing "a" with -'''o''' and -'''ina''':
  
amiga (friend) – amigo (male friend) – amigina (female friend)
+
- ''amiga (friend) – amigo (male friend) – amigina (female friend)''
  
 
c) Some nouns imply the sex of the human:
 
c) Some nouns imply the sex of the human:
  
man (man) – gina (woman)
+
- ''man (man) – gina (woman)''
  
boy (boy) – gela (girl)
+
- ''boy (boy) – gela (girl)''
  
patra (father) – mata (mother)
+
- ''patra (father) – mata (mother)''
  
son (son) – docha (daughter)
+
- ''son (son) – docha (daughter)''
  
opa (grandfather) – oma (grandmother)
+
- ''opa (grandfather) – oma (grandmother)''
  
brata (brother) – sista (sister)
+
- ''brata (brother) – sista (sister)''
  
onkla (uncle) – tia (aunt)
+
- ''onkla (uncle) – tia (aunt)''
  
  
1.4. Apposition may be marked with to (from to es – that is):
 
  
Me (I) to kitabnik (book lover) lekti (to read) mucho (much). – I, being a book lover, read a lot.
+
1.4. Apposition may be marked with '''to''' (from "to es" – that is):
 +
 
 +
- ''Me (I) to kitabnik (book lover) lekti (to read) mucho (much). – I, being a book lover, read a lot.''
 +
 
 +
- ''Molya (wife) gro-lubi (to adore) suy (her) mursha (husband) to soldata (soldier). – The wife adores her husband who is a soldier.''
  
● Molya (wife) gro-lubi (to adore) suy (her) mursha (husband) to soldata (soldier). – The wife adores her husband who is a soldier.
 
  
  
 
1.5. There is no article (numeral "un" (one) and demonstrative pronouns like "sey" (this) are used instead, when necessary).
 
1.5. There is no article (numeral "un" (one) and demonstrative pronouns like "sey" (this) are used instead, when necessary).
  
2. Pronouns that function like nouns
+
 
 +
==== 2. Pronouns that function like nouns ====
  
 
2.1. Personal:  
 
2.1. Personal:  
  
a) me (I), nu (we), yu (you), ta (he / she), li (they)
+
a) '''me''' (I), '''nu''' (we), '''yu''' (you), '''ta''' (he / she), '''li''' (they)
  
Nu (we) vidi (to see) li (they). – We see them.
+
- ''Nu (we) vidi (to see) li (they). – We see them.''
  
Me (I) dumi (to think) om (about) yu (you). – I'm thinking about you.
+
- ''Me (I) dumi (to think) om (about) yu (you). – I'm thinking about you.''
  
b) lu (he), ela (she), it (it), yu oli (you all), oni (one), ambi (both)
+
b) '''lu''' (he), '''ela''' (she), '''it''' (it), '''yu oli''' (you all), '''oni''' (one), '''ambi''' (both)
  
Oni (one) shwo (to say) ke ("that")... – One says that...
+
- ''Oni (one) shwo (to say) ke ("that")... – One says that...''
  
Es (is) kitaba (book). Me (I) pren (to take) it (it). – This is a book. I take it.
+
- ''Es (is) kitaba (book). Me (I) pren (to take) it (it). – This is a book. I take it.''
  
Me (I) hev (to have) dwa (two) kota (cat). Ambi (both) es (is / are) swate (black). – I have two cats. They both are black.
+
- ''Me (I) hev (to have) dwa (two) kota (cat). Ambi (both) es (is / are) swate (black). – I have two cats. They both are black.''
  
  
2.2. Reflexive: swa (oneself), mutu (one another)
 
  
● Me (I) woshi (to wash) swa (oneself). – I wash myself.
+
2.2. Reflexive: '''swa''' (oneself), '''mutu''' (one another)
  
Ela (she) lubi (to love) swa (oneself). – She loves herself.
+
- ''Me (I) woshi (to wash) swa (oneself). – I wash myself.''
 +
 
 +
- ''Ela (she) lubi (to love) swa (oneself). – She loves herself.''
 +
 
 +
- ''Nu (we) lubi (to love) mutu (one another). – We love one another.''
  
● Nu (we) lubi (to love) mutu (one another). – We love one another.
 
  
  
Line 546: Line 455:
  
  
2.4. Demonstrative: se (this), to (that)
 
  
Se (this) es (is) auto (car), to (that) es (is) avion (airplane). – This is a car, that is an airplane.  
+
2.4. Demonstrative: '''se''' (this), '''to''' (that)
 +
 
 +
- ''Se (this) es (is) auto (car), to (that) es (is) avion (airplane). – This is a car, that is an airplane. ''
  
  
 
2.5. Relative:  
 
2.5. Relative:  
  
a) ke ("that" – object)
+
a) '''ke''' ("that" – object)
  
Es (is) kitaba (book) ke ("that") yu (you) he ("past tense") lekti (to read). – This is the book that you have read.
+
- ''Es (is) kitaba (book) ke ("that") yu (you) he ("past tense") lekti (to read). – This is the book that you have read.''
  
b) kel ("who / which" – subject, or with a preposition)
+
b) '''kel''' ("who / which" – subject, or with a preposition)
  
Es (is) boy (boy) kel (who) janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) muy (very) hao (good, well). – This is the boy who can sing very well.
+
- ''Es (is) boy (boy) kel (who) janmog (to know how) gani (to sing) muy (very) hao (good, well). – This is the boy who can sing very well.''
  
2.6. sama (the same thing)
+
2.6. '''sama''' (the same thing)
 +
 
 +
- ''Hao (good) Nove (new) Yar (year)! – Sama (the same thing) a yu (to you)! – Happy New Year! – The same (thing) to you!''
  
● Hao (good) Nove (new) Yar (year)! – Sama (the same thing) a yu (to you)! – Happy New Year! – The same (thing) to you!
 
  
 
=== 3. Adjective ===
 
=== 3. Adjective ===
  
Examples: hao (good), jamile (beautiful), blu (blue).
+
Examples: ''hao (good), jamile (beautiful), blu (blue).''
  
 
3.1. Comparison:  
 
3.1. Comparison:  
  
a) pyu... kem (more... than), meno... kem (less... than)
+
a) '''pyu... kem''' (more... than), '''meno... kem''' (less... than)
  
May (мой) syao (маленький) kamila (ромашка) es (есть) pyu (более) jamile (красивый) kem (чем) yur (твой) gran (большой) rosa (роза). – Моя маленькая ромашка красивее чем твоя большая роза.
+
- ''May (my) syao (little) kamila (camomille) es (is / are) pyu (more) jamile (beautiful) kem (than) yur (your) gran (big) rosa (rose). – My little camomille is more beautiful than your rose..''
  
b) sam .. kom (as... as),
+
b) '''sam .. kom''' (as... as),
  
c) zuy (the most), minim (the least)
+
c) '''zuy''' (the most), '''minim''' (the least)
  
Luy (his) auto (car) es (is) zuy (the most) kway (fast). – His car is the fastest.  
+
- ''Luy (his) auto (car) es (is) zuy (the most) kway (fast). – His car is the fastest. ''
  
d) kem... tem (the... the...)
+
d) '''kem... tem''' (the... the...)
  
kem pyu (more) kway (fast), tem pyu (more) hao (good, well) – the faster, the better
+
- ''kem pyu (more) kway (fast), tem pyu (more) hao (good, well) – the faster, the better''
  
3.2. Intensification:
 
  
a) muy (very)
 
  
● Ela (she) es (is / are) muy (very) jamile (beautiful). – She is very beautiful.
+
3.2. Intensification:
  
b) tro (too)
+
a) '''muy''' (very)
  
● Sey (this) panta (trousers) es (is / are) tro (too) gran (big). – These trousers are too big.
+
- ''Ela (she) es (is / are) muy (very) jamile (beautiful). – She is very beautiful.''
  
c) idyen (a little)
+
b) '''tro''' (too)
  
● Yur (your) klaida (clothes) es (is / are) idyen (a little) mokre (wet). – Your clothes are a little wet.
+
- ''Sey (this) panta (trousers) es (is / are) tro (too) gran (big). – These trousers are too big.''
  
d) basta (enough)
+
c) '''idyen''' (a little)
  
● Sey (this) dom (house) es (is / are) basta (enough) gran (big). – This house is big enough.
+
- ''Yur (your) klaida (clothes) es (is / are) idyen (a little) mokre (wet). – Your clothes are a little wet.''
  
e) ga (completely)
+
d) '''basta''' (enough)
  
● Kinda (child) es (is / are) ga (completely) gande (dirty). – The child is completely dirty.
+
- ''Sey (this) dom (house) es (is / are) basta (enough) gran (big). – This house is big enough.''
  
3.3. Pronouns that function as adjectives
+
e) '''ga''' (completely)
  
a) posessive:
+
- ''Kinda (child) es (is / are) ga (completely) gande (dirty). – The child is completely dirty.''
  
may (my), nuy (our), yur (your)
+
f) '''aika''' (quite)
  
suy (his / her), luy (his), elay (her), ley (their)
+
- ''Sey (this) dom (house) es (is / are) aika gran (big). - This house is quite big.''
  
● Wo (where) es (is) yur (your) mata (mother)? – Where is your mother?
 
  
b) swa-ney (own)
 
  
● Me (I) pren (to take) swa-ney (own) bao (bag), bu (not) yur (your) shapa (hat). – I take my own bag, (and) not your hat.  
+
==== 3.3. Pronouns that function as adjectives ====
  
c) demonstrative: sey (this), toy (that), tal (such)
+
a) posessive: '''may''' (my), '''nuy''' (our), '''yur''' (your), '''suy''' (his / her), '''luy''' (his), '''elay''' (her), '''ley''' (their)
  
● Sey (this) dom (house) es (is) gao (tall). This house is tall.
+
- ''Wo (where) es (is) yur (your) mata (mother)? Where is your mother?''
  
● Me (I) bu (not) pri (to like) tal (such) joka (joke). – I don't like such jokes.
+
b) '''swa-ney''' (own)
  
d) specifying:
+
- ''Me (I) pren (to take) swa-ney (own) bao (bag), bu (not) yur (your) shapa (hat). – I take my own bag, (and) not your hat. ''
  
koy (some), eni (any), kada (every, each)
+
c) demonstrative: '''sey''' (this), '''toy''' (that), '''tal''' (such)
  
otre (other), same (same)
+
- ''Sey (this) dom (house) es (is) gao (tall). – This house is tall.''
  
nul (no), ol (all, whole)
+
- ''Me (I) bu (not) pri (to like) tal (such) joka (joke). – I don't like such jokes.''
  
● Kada (every) gina (woman) pri (to like) chokolat (chocolate). – Every woman likes chocolate.
+
d) specifying: '''koy''' (some), '''eni''' (any), '''kada''' (every, each), '''otre''' (other), '''same''' (same), '''nul''' (no), '''ol''' (all, whole)
  
● Nul (no) kota (cat) pri (to like) chi (to eat) legum (vegetable). – No cat likes to eat vegetables.
+
- ''Kada (every) gina (woman) pri (to like) chokolat (chocolate). – Every woman likes chocolate. ''
  
 +
- ''Nul (no) kota (cat) pri (to like) chi (to eat) legum (vegetable). – No cat likes to eat vegetables.''
  
 
=== 4. Adverb ===
 
=== 4. Adverb ===
  
Examples: hao (well), klarem (clearly).
+
Examples: ''hao (well), klarem (clearly).''
  
 
4.1. Comparison: look comparison for adjectives
 
4.1. Comparison: look comparison for adjectives
  
  
4.2. Demonstrative
 
  
a) of manner: tak (so)
+
==== 4.2. Demonstrative ====
  
● Me (I) bu (not) pri (to like) wen (when) yu (you) shwo (to say) tak (so). – I don't like when you talk so.
+
a) of manner: '''tak''' (so)
  
b) number: tanto (so much)
+
- ''Me (I) bu (not) pri (to like) wen (when) yu (you) shwo (to say) tak (so). – I don't like when you talk so.''
  
● Yu (you) bu (not) gai (should) shwo (to say) tanto (so much) lautem (loudly). – You shouldn't talk so loudly.
+
b) number: '''tanto''' (so much)
  
● tanto kway (fast) kom (as) posible (possible) – as fast as possible
+
- ''Yu (you) bu (not) gai (should) shwo (to say) tanto (so much) lautem (loudly). You shouldn't talk so loudly.''
  
c) situation: hir (here), dar (there)
+
- ''tanto kway (fast) kom (as) posible (possible) – as fast as possible''
  
● Me (I) es (is /are /am) hir (here), yu (you) es (is / are / am) dar (there). – You are here, I'm there.
+
c) situation: '''hir''' (here), '''dar''' (there)
  
d) direction: ahir ((to) here), adar ((to) there)
+
- ''Me (I) es (is /are /am) hir (here), yu (you) es (is / are / am) dar (there). – You are here, I'm there.''
  
● Lai (to come) ba ("imperative") ahir (here)! Nau (now) go (to go) ba ("imperative") adar (there)! – Come here! Now go there!
+
d) direction: '''ahir''' ((to) here), '''adar''' ((to) there)
  
e) time, condition: dan (then)
+
- ''Lai (to come) ba ("imperative") ahir (here)! Nau (now) go (to go) ba ("imperative") adar (there)! – Come here! Now go there!''
  
dan me (I) bu (not) mog-te (can + "past tense") – then (at that time) I could
+
e) time, condition: '''dan''' (then)
  
dan me (I) bu (not) go (to go) – then (under such condition) I'm not going
+
- ''dan me (I) bu (not) mog-te (can + "past tense") – then (at that time) I could''
  
4.3. Compound
+
- ''dan me (I) bu (not) go (to go) – then (under such condition) I'm not going''
  
a) situation:
 
  
koylok (somewhere), enilok (anywhere)
 
  
kadalok (everywhere), otrelok (in the other place)
+
==== 4.3. Compound ====
  
nullok (nowhere)
+
a) situation: '''koylok''' (somewhere), '''enilok''' (anywhere), '''kadalok''' (everywhere), '''otrelok''' (in the other place), '''nullok''' (nowhere)
  
Lu (he) lekti (to read) mucho (much), luy (his) kitaba (book) es (is) kadalok (everywhere). – He reads a lot, his boooks are everywhere.
+
- ''Lu (he) lekti (to read) mucho (much), luy (his) kitaba (book) es (is) kadalok (everywhere). – He reads a lot, his boooks are everywhere.''
  
Hir (here) yur (your) bao (bag) yok (there is no), shuki (to look for) ba ("imperative") otrelok (in the other place). – There is no your  
+
- ''Hir (here) yur (your) bao (bag) yok (there is no), shuki (to look for) ba ("imperative") otrelok (in the other place). – There is no your  
bag here, look for it some other place.
+
bag here, look for it some other place.''
  
b) time:
+
b) time: '''koytaim''' (sometime), '''enitaim''' (anytime), '''oltaim''' (all the time); '''koyves''' (sometimes), '''kadaves''' (every time), '''unves''' (once), '''otreves''' (another time), '''nulves''' (not once, never)
  
koytaim (sometime), enitaim (anytime), oltaim (all the time), koyves (sometimes), kadaves (every time), unves (once), otreves (another time), nulves (not once, never)
+
- ''Koytaim (sometime) me (I) ve ("future tense") go (to go) a ("direction") Paris (Paris). – Sometime I will go t Paris.''
  
● Koytaim (sometime) me (I) ve ("future tense") go (to go) a ("direction") Paris (Paris). – Sometime I will go t Paris.
+
- ''Lu (he) lekti (to read) oltaim (all the time). – He is reading all the time''
  
● Lu (he) lekti (to read) oltaim (all the time). – He is reading all the time
+
c) manner: '''koykomo''' (somehow), '''enikomo''' (anyhow)
  
c) manner: koykomo (somehow), enikomo (anyhow)
+
- ''Yu (you) mog (can) resolvi (to solve) sey (this) taska (task) enikomo (anyhow). – You can solve this task anyhow.''
  
● Yu (you) mog (can) resolvi (to solve) sey (this) taska (task) enikomo (anyhow). – You can solve this task anyhow.
+
d) degree: '''koygrad''' (to some degree), '''nulgrad''' (not in the least)
  
d) degree: koygrad (to some degree), nulgrad (not in the least)
+
- ''Me (I) sol (only) koygrad (to some degree) samaji (to understand) yu (you). – I understand you only to some degree. ''
  
● Me (I) sol (only) koygrad (to some degree) samaji (to understand) yu (you). – I understand you only to some degree.
+
e) other: '''olosam''' (anyway), '''otrekas''' (otherwise)
  
e) other: olosam (anyway), otrekas (otherwise)
 
  
4.4. Other
 
  
a) frequence:
+
==== 4.4. Other ====
  
sempre (always), oftem (often)
+
a) frequence: '''sempre''' (always), '''oftem''' (often), '''rarem''' (rarely), '''pinchanem''' (usually), '''neva''' (never)  
rarem (rarely), pinchanem (usually)
+
neva (never)  
+
  
Lu (he) sempre (always) tardi (to be late). – He is always late.
+
- ''Lu (he) sempre (always) tardi (to be late). – He is always late.''
  
b) time:  
+
b) time: '''nau''' (now), '''poy''' (then, later), '''sun''' (soon), '''turan''' (suddenly), '''tuy''' (right now), '''yeri''' (yesterday), '''sedey''' (today), '''manya''' (tomorrow)
  
nau (now), poy (then, later), sun (soon)
+
- ''Sedey (today) meteo (weather) es (is) hao (good). Me (I) bu (not) jan (to know) kwel (what) meteo (weather) ve ("future tense") bi (to be) manya (tomorrow). – Today the weather is good. I don't know what the weather will be like tomorrow.''
turan (suddenly), tuy (right now)
+
yeri (yesterday), sedey (today), manya (tomorrow)
+
  
● Sedey (today) meteo (weather) es (is) hao (good). Me (I) bu (not) jan (to know) kwel (what) meteo (weather) ve ("future tense") bi (to be) manya (tomorrow). – Today the weather is good. I don't know what the weather will be like tomorrow.
+
c) '''yo''' (already), '''haishi''' (still, as yet), '''snova''' (again)
  
c) yo (already), haishi (still, as yet), snova (again)
+
- ''Me (I) yo (already) jan (to know) om (about) to (that). – I know about that already.''
  
● Me (I) yo (already) jan (to know) om (about) to (that). – I know about that already.
+
- ''Lu (he) haishi (still) safari (to travel). — He still travels.''
  
● Lu (he) haishi (still) safari (to travel). — He still travels.
+
d) supposition: '''shayad''' (perhaps), '''mogbi''' (maybe), '''musbi''' (must be), '''semblem''' (seemingly), '''sertem''' (certainly), '''zaruu''' (without fail), '''ouran''' (casually), '''verem''' (actually)
  
d) supposition: shayad (perhaps), mogbi (maybe), musbi (must be), semblem (seemingly), sertem (certainly), zaruu (without fail), ouran (casually), verem (actually)
+
- ''Shayad ta (he / she) bu (not) ve ("future tense") lai (to come). – Perhaps he / she will not come.''
  
● Shayad ta (he / she) bu (not) ve ("future tense") lai (to come). – Perhaps he / she will not come.
+
- ''Musbi ta (he / she) he ("past tense") fogeti (to forget). – He must have forgotten about it.''
  
● Musbi ta (he / she) he ("past tense") fogeti (to forget). – He must have forgotten about it.
+
e) addition, confirmation: '''yoshi''' (also), '''toshi''' (too)
  
e) addition, confirmation: yoshi (also), toshi (too)
+
- ''Me (I) hev (to have) blan (white) kamila (camilla).Yoshi (also) me (I) hev (to have) rude (red) rosa (rose). – I have a white camilla. Also I have a red rose. ''
  
● Me (I) hev (to have) blan (white) kamila (camilla).Yoshi (also) me (I) hev (to have) rude (red) rosa (rose). – I have a white camilla. Also I have a red rose.  
+
- '' Lu (he) toshi (also, too) hev (to have) rosa (rose). – He has a rose too.''
  
●  Lu (he) toshi (also, too) hev (to have) rosa (rose). – He has a rose too.
+
f) non-exactness: '''hampi''' (almost), '''sirke''' (about, approximately), '''vaika''' (just, at least), '''kwasi''' (as if)
  
f) non-exactness: hampi (almost), sirke (about, approximately), vaika (just, at least), kwasi (as if)
+
- ''Hampi (almost) oli (everybody) lai (to come). – Nearly everybody comes / came.''
  
● Hampi (almost) oli (everybody) lai (to come). – Nearly everybody comes / came.
+
- ''Me (I) hev (to have) sirke (approximately) dwa (two) litra (litre) milka (milk). – I have about two litres milk. ''
  
● Me (I) hev (to have) sirke (approximately) dwa (two) litra (litre) milka (milk). I have about two litres milk.
+
- ''Dai (to give) ba ("imperative") vaika (at least, just) fo (for) un (one) minuta (minute)! Give (it to me) at least for one minute!''
  
● Dai (to give) ba ("imperative") vaika (at least, just) fo (for) un (one) minuta (minute)! – Give (it to me) at least for one minute!
+
- ''Ela (she) kwasi bu (not) merki (to notice) me (I). - She behaves as if she didn't notice me.''
  
● Ela (she) kwasi bu (not) merki (to notice) me (I). - She behaves as if she didn't notice me.
+
g) exceptiveness: '''sol''' (only), '''sim''' (simply), '''rek''' (just, straight), '''yus''' (just)
  
g) exceptiveness: sol (only), sim (simply), rek (just, straight), yus (just)
+
- ''Sol ela (she) mog (can) samaji (to understand) me (I). – Only she can understand me.''
  
● Sol ela (she) mog (can) samaji (to understand) me (I). – Only she can understand me.
+
- ''Sim silensi (to keep silence) ba (imperative marker) idyen (a little). - Just keep silence for a while.''
  
● Sim silensi (to keep silence) ba (imperative marker) idyen (a little). - Just keep silence for a while.
+
- ''Sey (this) kamina (road) dukti (to lead) straight a (to) urba (town). - This road leads straight to the town.''
  
● Sey (this) kamina (road) dukti (to lead) straight a (to) urba (town). - This road leads straight to the town.
+
h) degree: '''gro''' (very much, greatly)
  
h) degree: gro (very much, greatly)
+
- ''Lu (he) lubi (to love) suy (his / her) molya (wife) gro (much). – He loves his wife very much.''
  
● Lu (he) lubi (to love) suy (his / her) molya (wife) gro (much). – He loves his wife very much.
+
i) continuation: '''for''' (further, on)
  
i) continuation: for (further, on)
+
- ''Ta (he / she) gun (to work) for (further). – He is working on.''
  
● Ta (he / she) gun (to work) for (further). – He is working on.
+
j) away: '''wek''' (away)
  
j) away: wek (away)
+
- ''Go (to go) wek (away)! – Go away!''
  
● Go (to go) wek (away)! – Go away!
+
k) loose: '''los'''
  
k) loose: los
+
- ''Doga (dog) es (is) los (loose). – The dog is loose.''
  
● Doga (dog) es (is) los (loose). – The dog is loose.
+
l) on / off: '''on, of'''
  
l) on / off: on, of
+
- ''Mah ("to make") radio (radio) on. – Make the radio on.''
  
● Mah ("to make") radio (radio) on. – Make the radio on.
+
m) emphasis: '''iven''' (even), '''primem''' (firstly)
  
m) emphasis: iven (even), primem (firstly)
+
- ''Iven kinda (child) mog (can) samaji (to understand) se (this)). – Even a child can understand that.''
  
● Iven kinda (child) mog (can) samaji (to understand) se (this)). – Even a child can understand that.
+
n) in vain: '''vanem'''
  
n) in vain: vanem
+
- ''Li (they) shuki (to look for) ol (whole) dey (day), bat (but) vanem. – The have been looking for it during the whole day, but in vain.''
  
● Li (they) shuki (to look for) ol (whole) dey (day), bat (but) vanem. – The have been looking for it during the whole day, but in vain.
+
=== 5. Verb ===
  
 +
Examples: ''vidi (to see), jan (to know), shwo (to talk).
 +
''
 +
5.1. Verb form doesn't change. Grammar meaning are expressed with special particles. Exception: '''bi''' (to be) – '''es''' (is / are / am) – '''bin''' (was / were).
  
  
=== 5. Verb ===
 
 
Examples: vidi (to see), jan (to know), shwo (to talk).
 
 
5.1. Verb form doesn't change. Grammar meaning are expressed with special particles. Exception: bi (to be) – es (is / are / am) – bin (was / were).
 
  
 
5.2. Tenses
 
5.2. Tenses
Line 800: Line 697:
 
If there is any indication of time of action, the basic verb form can be used.
 
If there is any indication of time of action, the basic verb form can be used.
  
Unves (once) me (I) miti (to meet) rega (king / queen). – Once I met a king / queen.
+
- ''Unves (once) me (I) miti (to meet) rega (king / queen). – Once I met a king / queen.''
  
 
The tense can be specified with particles:  
 
The tense can be specified with particles:  
  
a) ve ("future tense"), -te ("past tense")
+
a) '''ve-''' ("future tense"), -'''te''' ("past tense")
  
Me (I) lekti (to read) mucho (much). – I read a lot.
+
- ''Me (I) lekti (to read) mucho (much). – I read a lot.''
  
Bat (but) me (I) bu (not) lekti-te (to read + "past tense") sey (this) kitaba (book). – I didn't read this book.
+
- ''Bat (but) me (I) bu (not) lekti-te (to read + "past tense") sey (this) kitaba (book). – I didn't read this book.''
  
Me (I) ve ("future tense") lekti (to read) it (it). – I will read it.
+
- ''Me (I) ve ("future tense") lekti (to read) it (it). – I will read it.''
  
b) zai (continuous marker)
+
b) '''zai''' (continuous marker)
  
Me (I) bu (not) mog (can) lai (to come) nau (now), me (I) zai chi (to eat) deyfan (dinner). – I can't come now I'm having dinner.
+
- ''Me (I) bu (not) mog (can) lai (to come) nau (now), me (I) zai chi (to eat) deyfan (dinner). – I can't come now I'm having dinner.''
  
Kwo (what) me (I) zwo (to do) yeri (yesterday) klok ("o'clock") sit (six)? Me (I) zai promeni-te (to walk + "past tense") in (in) shulin  
+
- ''Kwo (what) me (I) zwo (to do) yeri (yesterday) klok ("o'clock") sit (six)? Me (I) zai promeni-te (to walk + "past tense") in (in) shulin  
(forest). – What was I doing yesterday at six o'clock? I was walking in the forest.
+
(forest). – What was I doing yesterday at six o'clock? I was walking in the forest.''
  
c) he (completed action)
+
c) '''he''' (completed action)
  
Me (I) he zwo (to do) olo (all, everything). – I have done everything.
+
- ''Me (I) he zwo (to do) olo (all, everything). – I have done everything.''
  
d) yus he ("just")
+
d) '''yus he''' ("just")
  
Way (why) yu (you) es (is / are) gande (dirty)? Me (I) yus he woshi (to wash) yu (you)! – Why are you dirty? I have just washed you!  
+
- ''Way (why) yu (you) es (is / are) gande (dirty)? Me (I) yus he woshi (to wash) yu (you)! – Why are you dirty? I have just washed you! ''
  
e) gwo (indefinite past, "used to")
+
e) '''gwo''' (indefinite past, "used to")
  
Ob (a question particle) nu (we) gwo miti (to meet) koylok (somewhere)? – Have me ever met somewhere?  
+
- ''Ob (a question particle) nu (we) gwo miti (to meet) koylok (somewhere)? – Have me ever met somewhere? ''
  
f) sal (near future, "be going to")
+
f) '''sal''' (near future, "be going to")
  
Sup (soup) es (is / are) tayar (ready). Nu (we) sal chi (to eat) deyfan (dinner). – The soup is ready. We are going to have dinner.
+
- ''Sup (soup) es (is / are) tayar (ready). Nu (we) sal chi (to eat) deyfan (dinner). – The soup is ready. We are going to have dinner.''
  
5.3. Subjunctive ("would"): wud
 
  
● Me (I) wud yao (to want) bi (to be) rega (king / queen). – I would like to be a king / a queen.
 
  
5.4. Speaking about an other people's opinion: muka
+
5.3. Subjunctive ("would"): '''wud'''
  
Lu (he) muka lubi (to love) ela (she). – He is said to love her.
+
- ''Me (I) wud yao (to want) bi (to be) rega (king / queen). – I would like to be a king / a queen. ''
 +
 
 +
5.4. Speaking about an other people's opinion: '''muka'''
 +
 
 +
- ''Lu (he) muka lubi (to love) ela (she). – He is said to love her.''
  
 
5.5. Imperative:  
 
5.5. Imperative:  
  
a) ba
+
a) '''ba'''
  
Gani (to sing) ba, me (I) pri (to like) audi (to hear) wen (when) yu (you) gani (to sing). – Sing (to me), I like to hear you sing.
+
- ''Gani (to sing) ba, me (I) pri (to like) audi (to hear) wen (when) yu (you) gani (to sing). – Sing (to me), I like to hear you sing.''
  
b) bye (don't)
+
b) '''bye''' (don't)
  
Bye lai (to come)! – Don't come!
+
- ''Bye lai (to come)! – Don't come!''
  
c) hay (let, may), magari (I wish), nomagari (I wish not)
+
c) '''hay''' (let, may), '''magari''' (I wish), '''nomagari''' (I wish not)
  
Hay may (my) yaosa (wish) fulfil (fulfil)! — May my wish come true!
+
- ''Hay may (my) yaosa (wish) fulfil (fulfil)! — May my wish come true!''
  
Magari surya (sun) lai (to come)! – I wish the sun came!  
+
- ''Magari surya (sun) lai (to come)! – I wish the sun came! ''
  
Nomagari pluvi (to rain)! – I wish it didn't rain!
+
- ''Nomagari pluvi (to rain)! – I wish it didn't rain!''
  
5.6. Indication of transitiveness (if necessary):
 
  
a) fa- ("to become, get")
 
  
● astoni (to astonish) – fa-astoni (to get astonished)
+
5.6. Indication of transitiveness (if necessary):
  
b) mah- ("to cause")  
+
a) '''fa-''' ("to become, get"): ''astoni (to astonish) – fa-astoni (to get astonished)''
  
lwo (to fall) – mah-lwo (to drop)
+
b) '''mah'''- ("to cause"): ''lwo (to fall) – mah-lwo (to drop)''
  
 
5.7. Indication of the aspect (if necessary):
 
5.7. Indication of the aspect (if necessary):
  
a) en- (to begin)
+
a) '''en'''- (to begin): ''Poy (then) ta (he / she) en-gani (to begin to sing). – Then he / she begins / began singing.''
 
+
Poy (then) ta (he / she) en-gani (to begin to sing). – Then he / she begins / began singing.
+
 
+
b) ek- ("one time or suddenly"):
+
  
Ela (she) ek-krai (to cry one time) turan (suddenly). – She gave a cry suddenly.
+
b) '''ek'''- ("one time or suddenly"): ''Ela (she) ek-krai (to cry one time) turan (suddenly). – She gave a cry suddenly.''
  
c) verb doubling (action takes some time or is repeated many times)
+
c) verb doubling (action takes some time or is repeated many times): ''Lu (he) go-go (go) pa (preposition of a wide meaning) shamba (room). – He paced up and down the room.''
  
● Lu (he) go-go (go) pa (preposition of a wide meaning) shamba (room). – He paced up and down the room.
+
d) the adverb '''oltaim''' (the action is continuous or is repeting all the time): ''Lu (he) shwo (to say, to talk) oltaim. – He is talking all the time.''
  
d) the adverb oltaim (the action is continuous or is repeting all the time)
 
  
● Lu (he) shwo (to say, to talk) oltaim. – He is talking all the time.
 
  
5.8. Passive: gei ("is being done")
+
5.8. Passive: '''gei''' ("is being done")
  
Me (I) zai (continuous marker) lekti (to read) sey (this) kitaba (book), also (so) it (it) gei lekti (to read). – I'm reading this book, so it is being read.
+
- ''Me (I) zai (continuous marker) lekti (to read) sey (this) kitaba (book), also (so) it (it) gei lekti (to read). – I'm reading this book, so it is being read.''
  
 
5.9. Participle:  
 
5.9. Participle:  
  
a) -she (active)
+
a) -'''she''' (active)
  
Me (I) zai (continuous marker) lekti (to read), me (I) es (is / are) lekti-she (reading). – I'm reading.
+
- ''Me (I) zai (continuous marker) lekti (to read), me (I) es (is / are) lekti-she (reading). – I'm reading.''
  
b) -ney (passive or past)
+
b) '''-ney''' (passive or past)
  
Me (I) he (past tense marker) lekti (to read) sey (this) kitaba (book), it (it) es (is / are) yo (already) lekti-ney (read). – I have read  
+
-''Me (I) he (past tense marker) lekti (to read) sey (this) kitaba (book), it (it) es (is / are) yo (already) lekti-ney (read). – I have read this book, it is already read.''
this book, it is already read.
+
  
Lu (he) yus he ("just") lai (to come), lu (he) es (is / are) yo (already) lai-ney (come). – He has just come.
+
- ''Lu (he) yus he ("just") lai (to come), lu (he) es (is / are) yo (already) lai-ney (come). – He has just come.''
  
5.10. Participle: -yen ("while doing")
+
5.10. Participle: -'''yen''' ("while doing")
  
Me (I) zai (continuous marker) slu (to listen) kan-yen (looking at) yu (you). – I'm listening while looking at you.
+
- ''Me (I) zai (continuous marker) slu (to listen) kan-yen (looking at) yu (you). – I'm listening while looking at you.''
  
5.11. Simultaneity: al
 
  
● Al vidi (to see) me (I) lu (he) ahfi (to hide) swa (oneself). – As soon as he sees me, he hides himself.
 
  
5.12. Succession of actions: afte (after)
+
5.11. Simultaneity: '''al'''
  
● Afte vidi (to see) un (one) ves (time) yu (you) neva (never) fogeti (to forget). – After you see it once, you will never forget it.
+
- ''Al vidi (to see) me (I) lu (he) ahfi (to hide) swa (oneself). – As soon as he sees me, he hides himself.''
  
6. Special verbs
+
5.12. Succession of actions: '''afte''' (after)
  
6.1. fai (can substitute any verb)
+
- ''Afte vidi (to see) un (one) ves (time) yu (you) neva (never) fogeti (to forget). – After you see it once, you will never forget it.''
  
● fai kama (bed) – to lie or to sleep in the bed
 
  
6.2. mah ("to cause")
 
  
● mah sikin (knife) agude (sharp) – to sharpen the knife (= mah-agude sikin)
+
==== 6. Special verbs ====
  
6.3. hev (to have), ye (there is), yok (there is no), walaa (here is)
+
6.1. '''fai''' (can substitute any verb): ''fai kama (bed) – to lie or to sleep in the bed''
  
● Me (I) hev (to have) dwa (two) kalam (pencil). I have two pencils.
+
6.2. '''mah''' ("to cause"): ''mah sikin (knife) agude (sharp) – to sharpen the knife (= mah-agude sikin)''
  
● Kalam (pencil) ye (there is), bat (but) papir (paper) yok (there is no). – There is a pencil, but there is no paper.
+
6.3. '''hev''' (to have), '''ye''' (there is), '''yok''' (there is no), '''walaa''' (here is)
  
● Walaa may (my) shamba (room). – Here is my room.
+
- ''Me (I) hev (to have) dwa (two) kalam (pencil). – I have two pencils.''
  
6.4. Modal verbs.
+
- ''Kalam (pencil) ye (there is), bat (but) papir (paper) yok (there is no). – There is a pencil, but there is no paper.''
  
a) Possibility, abilty: mog
+
- ''Walaa may (my) shamba (room). – Here is my room.''
  
● Me (I) mog zwo (to do) se (this). – I can do it.
 
  
● Bu (not) mog jivi (to live) sin (without) akwa (water). – One can't live without water.
 
  
b) Know how: janmog
+
6.4. Modal verbs.
  
● Me (I) janmog gani (to sing) hao (good, well). – I can sing well.
+
a) Possibility, abilty: '''mog'''
  
c) Permission: darfi
+
- ''Me (I) mog zwo (to do) se (this). – I can do it.''
  
● Hir (here) bu (not) darfi fumi (to smoke). – One can't (isn't allowed to) smoke here.
+
- ''Bu (not) mog jivi (to live) sin (without) akwa (water). – One can't live without water.''
  
d) Need: nidi
+
b) Know how: '''janmog'''
  
Me (I) nidi chi (to eat) koysa (something) – I need to eat something.
+
- ''Me (I) janmog gani (to sing) hao (good, well). – I can sing well.''
  
e) Be obliged, have to: majbur
+
c) Permission: '''darfi'''
  
● En-pluvi (to begin to rain), me (I) majbur go (to go) a dom (home). – it has started to rain; I have to go home.
+
- ''Hir (here) bu (not) darfi fumi (to smoke). – One can't (isn't allowed to) smoke here.''
  
f) It is necessary; require: treba
+
d) Need: '''nidi'''
  
● Treba fini (finish) til (till) aksham (evening). It is necessary to finish till the evening.
+
- ''Me (I) nidi chi (to eat) koysa (something) – I need to eat something.''
  
g) Should: gai
+
e) Be obliged, have to: '''majbur'''
  
● Bu (not) gai lanfai (to be lazy). – One shouldn't be lazy.
+
- ''En-pluvi (to begin to rain), me (I) majbur go (to go) a dom (home). – it has started to rain; I have to go home.''
  
h) Must: mus
+
f) It is necessary; require: '''treba'''
  
● Me (I) mus go (to go) a ofis (to the office). – I must go to the office.
+
- ''Treba fini (finish) til (till) aksham (evening). – It is necessary to finish till the evening.''
  
i) Wish: yao
+
g) Should: '''gai'''
  
● Me (I) yao shwo (to talk) kun (with) yu (you). – I want to talk to you.
+
- ''Bu (not) gai lanfai (to be lazy). – One shouldn't be lazy.''
  
j) To like: pri
+
h) Must: '''mus'''
  
Me (I) pri raki (to ride) bisikla (bicycle). – I like to ride a bicycle.
+
- ''Me (I) mus go (to go) a ofis (to the office). – I must go to the office.''
  
 +
i) Wish: ''yao''
  
6.5. “Intensive” verbs (before another verb)
+
- ''Me (I) yao shwo (to talk) kun (with) yu (you). – I want to talk to you.''
  
a) to succeed in doing: pai (to get)
+
j) To like: '''pri'''
  
Me (I) pai ofni (to open) boxa (box). – I have managed to open the box.
+
- ''Me (I) pri raki (to ride) bisikla (bicycle). – I like to ride a bicycle.''
  
b) indication of a new condition: lwo in (to fall in)
 
  
● Ela (she) lwo in plaki (to cry). – She burst into tears.
 
  
c) unexpectedness: dai (to give)
 
  
● dai shwo (ta say, to talk) – to blurt out
+
6.5. “Intensive” verbs (before another verb)
  
6.6. "worth": val
+
a) to succeed in doing: '''pai''' (to get)
  
● Val slu (to listen) pyu (more) atentem (attentively). – It's worth listening more attentively.
+
- ''Me (I) pai ofni (to open) boxa (box). – I have managed to open the box.''
  
6.7. “state” verb: sta
+
b) indication of a new condition: '''lwo in''' (to fall in)
  
● Komo (how) yu (you) sta? How are you?
+
- ''Ela (she) lwo in plaki (to cry). She burst into tears.''
  
● Me (I) sta hao (good, well). – I'm well.
+
c) unexpectedness: '''dai''' (to give)
  
== Compound words ==
+
- ''dai shwo (ta say, to talk) – to blurt out''
  
1. When sequence of two words acquires a new meaning, at least a little, the words are written together and a compound word appears.
 
  
1.1. The last word is the main one in a sequence:
 
  
● gun (to work) + taim (time) = guntaim (action time)
+
6.6. "worth": '''val'''
  
● surya (sun) + flor (flower) = suryaflor (sunflower)
+
- ''Val slu (to listen) pyu (more) atentem (attentively). – It's worth listening more attentively.''
  
● maus (mouse) + kapter (catcher) = mauskapter (mouse trap)
+
6.7. “state” verb: '''sta'''
  
1.2. Some words are regularly used to make compound words:
+
- ''Komo (how) yu (you) sta? – How are you?''
  
a) jen (person), man (man), gina (woman)
+
- ''Me (I) sta hao (good, well). – I'm well.''
  
● jadu (sorcery) – jadujen (sorcerer/sorceress) – jadugina (sorceress) – jaduman (sorcerer)
 
  
b) yuan (employee)
+
== Compound words ==
  
● polis (police) – polisyuan (policeman)
+
1. When sequence of two words acquires a new meaning, at least a little, the words are written together and a compound word appears.
  
c) guan (institution)
+
1.1. The last word is the main one in a sequence:
  
● kitaba (book) – kitabaguan (library)
+
- ''gun (to work) + taim (time) = guntaim (action time)''
  
d) loko (place)
+
- ''surya (sun) + flor (flower) = suryaflor (sunflower)''
  
● habitilok (habitation)
+
- ''maus (mouse) + kapter (catcher) = mauskapter (mouse trap)''
  
e) menga (great amount)
 
  
● jenmenga (crowd)
 
  
f) fin (end)
+
1.2. Some words are regularly used to make compound words:
  
● lekti (to read) – finlekti (to read completely)
+
a) '''jen''' (person), '''man''' (man), '''gina''' (woman): ''jadu (sorcery) – jadujen (sorcerer/sorceress) – jadugina (sorceress) – jaduman (sorcerer)''
  
g) swa (oneself)
+
b) '''yuan''' (employee): ''polis (police) – polisyuan (policeman)''
  
● swa-luba (self-love)
+
c) '''guan''' (institution): ''kitaba (book) – kitabaguan (library)''
  
● swa-kontrola (self-control)
+
d) '''lok(o)''' (place): ''habitilok (habitation)''
  
h) for (ahead)
+
e) '''menga''' (great amount): ''jenmenga (crowd)''
  
● for-gunsa (work continuation)
+
f) '''fin''' (end): ''lekti (to read) – finlekti (to read completely)''
  
i) kontra (against)
+
g) '''swa''' (oneself): ''swa-luba (self-love), swa-kontrola (self-control)''
  
● kontratoxin (antidote)
+
h) '''for''' (ahead): ''for-gunsa (work continuation)''
  
kontrapon (to oppose)
+
i) '''kontra''' (against): ''kontratoxin (antidote); kontrapon (to oppose)''
  
j) sin (without)
+
j) '''sin''' (without): ''sinsensu-ney (meaningless)''
  
● sinsensu-ney (meaningless)
+
k) '''tra''' (through): ''go (to go) – trago (to go through)''
 
+
k) tra (through)
+
 
+
go (to go) – trago (to go through)
+
  
  
Line 1,074: Line 947:
 
1. Noun to adjective:
 
1. Noun to adjective:
  
a) -ney (for nouns ending with -а the short form is acceptable: resta-ney = reste)
+
a) -'''ney''' (for nouns ending with -а the short form is acceptable: resta-ney = reste): ''interes (interest) – interes-ney (interesting)''
  
● interes (interest) – interes-ney (interesting)
+
b) -'''ful''' (full of): ''luma (light) – lumaful (full of light, luminous)''
  
b) -ful (full of)
+
c) '''-lik''' (similar in appearance or character): ''gina (woman) – ginalik (feminine, womanly)''
  
● luma (light) – lumaful (full of light, luminous)
 
 
c) -lik (similar in appearance or character)
 
 
● gina (woman) – ginalik (feminine, womanly)
 
  
  
Line 1,091: Line 959:
 
2.1. Suffixes.
 
2.1. Suffixes.
  
a) -a (for adjectives ending in -e): “something or somebody characterized with this quality”
+
a) -'''a''' ''(only for adjectives ending in -e)'' (“something or somebody characterized with this quality”)
  
adulte (grown-up) – adulta (a grown-up person)
+
- ''adulte (grown-up) – adulta (a grown-up person), konstante (constant) – konstanta (a constant)''
  
● konstante (constant) – konstanta (a constant)
+
b) -(i)'''taa''' (makes abstract nouns): ''vere (true) – veritaa (truth), hao (good) – haotaa (goodness)''
  
b) -(i)taa (makes abstract nouns)
+
c) -'''nesa''': ''gao (high) – gaonesa (highness) – gaotaa (height)''
  
● vere (true) – veritaa (truth)
+
d) -'''nik''' (characteristic feature): ''hao (good) – haonik (good one)''
 
+
● hao (good) – haotaa (goodness)
+
 
+
c) -nesa
+
 
+
● gao (high) – gaonesa (highness) – gaotaa (height)
+
 
+
d) -nik (characteristic feature)
+
 
+
hao (good) – haonik (good one)
+
 
+
e) -ka
+
 
+
● mole (soft) – molika (pulp)
+
  
 +
e) -'''ka''' (a thing having the quality): ''mole (soft) – molika (pulp)''
  
 
2.2. Particles:
 
2.2. Particles:
  
a) lo
+
a) '''lo''': ''Lo zuy (most) muhim (important) es (is) luba (love). – The most important thing is love.''
 
+
Lo zuy (most) muhim (important) es (is) luba (love). – The most important thing is love.
+
 
+
b) -la / -las
+
 
+
● Walaa (here is) dwa (two) rosa (rose). Sey-la (this one) es (is) rude (red), toy-la (that one) es (is) blan (white). – Here are two roses.
+
This one is red and that one is white.
+
 
+
c) wan (only about people)
+
  
● Syao (little) wan bu (not) lai (to come). – The little one isn't coming.
+
b) -'''la''' / -'''las''': ''Walaa (here is) dwa (two) rosa (rose). Sey-la (this one) es (is) rude (red), toy-la (that one) es (is) blan (white). – Here are two roses. This one is red and that one is white.''
  
 +
c) '''wan''' (only about people): ''Syao (little) wan bu (not) lai (to come). – The little one isn't coming.''
  
3. Adjective to adverb: -em (the stressed vowel doesn't change) or the same form
 
  
a) for adjectives ending in -e
 
  
● klare (clear) – klarem (clearly)
+
3. Adjective to adverb: -'''(e)m''' ''(the stressed vowel doesn't change)'' or the same form
  
b) for adjectives ending in a consonant
+
a) for adjectives ending in -e: ''klare (clear) – klarem (clearly)''
  
santush (satisfied, contented) — santushem (contentedly)
+
b) for adjectives ending in a consonant: ''santush (satisfied, contented) — santushem (contentedly)''
  
c) for other adjectives the form doesn't change
+
c) for other adjectives the form doesn't change: ''hao (good, well), kway (quick, quickly)''
  
● hao (good, well)
 
  
● kway (quick, quickly)
 
  
 +
4. Noun to adverb: -'''nem''': ''amiga (friend) – amiga-nem (friendly) ''
  
4. Noun to adverb: -nem
 
  
● amiga (friend) – amiga-nem (friendly)
 
  
 
5. Noun to verb:
 
5. Noun to verb:
  
a) -vati
+
a) -'''vati''': ''pao (a bubble) – paovati (to bubble)''
  
● pao (a bubble) – paovati (to bubble)
+
b) -'''isi''': ''memoria (memory) – memorisi (to memorize)''
  
b) -isi
 
  
● memoria (memory) – memorisi (to memorize)
 
  
 
6. Adjective to verb
 
6. Adjective to verb
  
a) fa- (= -ifi)
+
a) '''fa'''- (= -'''ifi'''): ''hao (good) – fa-hao (to improve, grow better)'', ''leve (light) – levifi (to lighten, become lighter)''
  
● hao (good) – fa-hao (to improve, grow better)
+
b) '''mah'''- (= -'''isi'''): ''gran (big) – mah-gran (to increase, make bigger), klin (clean) – klinisi (to clean, cleanse)''
  
● leve (light) – levifi (to lighten, become lighter)
+
c) -'''fai''': ''hwan (yellow) – hwanfai (appear/show yellow)''
  
b) mah- (= -isi)
 
 
● gran (big) – mah-gran (to increase, make bigger)
 
 
● klin (clean) – klinisi (to clean, cleanse)
 
 
c) -fai
 
 
● hwan (yellow) – hwanfai (appear/show yellow)
 
  
  
Line 1,186: Line 1,017:
 
7.1. Without special changes in meaning
 
7.1. Without special changes in meaning
  
a) -a (for the verbs ending with "consonant + i")
+
a) -'''a''' (for the verbs ending with "consonant + i"), -'''sa''' (for other verbs) (the act, the result): ''lubi (to love) – luba (love), gun (to work) – gunsa (work)''
 
+
-sa (for other verbs) (the act, the result)
+
 
+
lubi (to love) – luba (love)
+
 
+
gun (to work) – gunsa (work)
+
 
+
b) -ing (the process) (the stressed vowel doesn't change)
+
 
+
● swimi (to swim) – swiming (swimming)
+
 
+
● gloti (to swallow) – glota (a swallow) – gloting (swallowing)
+
 
+
c) tu
+
  
● Tu samaji (to understand) es (is / are) tu pardoni (to forgive). To understand means to forgive.
+
b) -'''ing''' (the process) (the stressed vowel doesn't change): ''swimi (to swim) – swiming (swimming), gloti (to swallow) – glota (a swallow) – gloting (swallowing)''
  
 +
c) '''tu''': ''Tu samaji (to understand) es (is / are) tu pardoni (to forgive). – To understand means to forgive.''
  
 
7.2. Doer
 
7.2. Doer
  
a) -er (doer or tool)
+
a) -'''er''' (doer or tool): ''leki (to treat medically) – leker (doctor), ofni (to open) – ofner (opener)''
 
+
leki (to treat medically) – leker (doctor)
+
 
+
ofni (to open) – ofner (opener)
+
 
+
b) -sha (a person performing the action)
+
 
+
● plei (to play) – plei-sha (the one who is playing)
+
 
+
c) -nik (a person having a characteristic feature)
+
 
+
● fobi (to be afraid of) – fobnik (coward)
+
  
 +
b) -'''sha''' (a person performing the action): ''plei (to play) – plei-sha (the one who is playing)''
  
 +
c) -'''nik''' (a person having a characteristic feature): ''fobi (to be afraid of) – fobnik (coward)''
  
 
7.3. Related to the action
 
7.3. Related to the action
  
a) -tura (the final result)
+
a) -'''tura''' (the final result): ''shwo (to say, to talk) – shwotura (a saying)''
 
+
shwo (to say, to talk) – shwotura (a saying)
+
 
+
b) -wat (the object of action)
+
 
+
● pi (to drink) – piwat (beverage)
+
  
c) -ka (an object related to the action)
+
b) -'''wat''' (the object of action): ''pi (to drink) – piwat (beverage)''
  
pendi (to hang) – pendika (peg, rack)
+
c) -'''ka''' (an object related to the action): ''pendi (to hang) – pendika (peg, rack)''
  
  
Line 1,243: Line 1,045:
 
8.1. General meaning  
 
8.1. General meaning  
  
a) -ke (related to)
+
a) -'''ke''' (related to): ''helpi (to help) – helpike (auxiliary), hao-chi-ke (good, well + to eat) fan (food) – tasty food''
 
+
helpi (to help) – helpike (auxiliary)
+
 
+
hao-chi-ke (good, well + to eat) fan (food) – tasty food
+
 
+
b) -she, -ney (participles)
+
 
+
● skribi (to write) – lekti-she (writing)
+
 
+
● skribi (to write) – lekti-ney (written)
+
 
+
  
 +
b) -'''she''', -'''ney''' (participles): ''skribi (to write) – skribi-she (writing), skribi (to write) – skribi-ney (written)''
  
 
8.2. With special meaning  
 
8.2. With special meaning  
  
a) -bile (possibility)
+
a) -'''bile''' (possibility): ''vidi (to see) – vidibile (visible)''
  
● vidi (to see) – vidibile (visible)
+
b) -'''shil''' (tending to): ''kusi (to bite) – kusishil (tending to bite)''
  
b) -shil (tending to)
+
c) -'''val''' (worth doing): ''admiri (to admire) – admirival (admirable)''
 
+
● kusi (to bite) – kusishil (tending to bite)
+
 
+
c) -val (worth doing)
+
 
+
admiri (to admire) – admirival (admirable)
+
  
  
Line 1,275: Line 1,061:
 
9. Verb to adverb
 
9. Verb to adverb
  
a) -shem (the short form for the verbs ending with i: sembli-shem = semblem)
+
a) -'''shem''' (the short form for the verbs ending with i: sembli-shem = semblem): ''ahfi (to hide) – ahfi-shem (secretly)''
 
+
ahfi (to hide) – ahfi-shem (secretly)
+
 
+
b) -nem
+
 
+
● ofensi (to offend) – ofensi-nem (like being offended)
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
  
 +
b) -'''nem''': ''ofensi (to offend) – ofensi-nem (like being offended)''
  
  
Line 1,291: Line 1,069:
  
  
1. Common
+
=== 1. Common ===
 +
(can be used with words of different classes)
  
1.1. Opposition: no-
+
1.1. Opposition: '''no'''-: ''pinchan (ordinary) – nopinchan (extraordinary)''
 
+
pinchan (ordinary) – nopinchan (extraordinary)
+
  
 
1.2. Diminutive and magnifying:
 
1.2. Diminutive and magnifying:
  
a) -ki (diminutive, doesn't change the quality)
+
a) -'''ki''' (diminutive, doesn't change the quality): ''doga (dog) – doga-ki (a little dog, doggy); somni (to sleep) – somni-ki (to take a nap)''
 
+
doga (dog) – doga-ki (a little dog, doggy)
+
 
+
somni (to sleep) – somni-ki (to take a nap)
+
 
+
b) -kin (diminutive, with some change of quality)
+
 
+
● barela (barrel) – barelakin (keg)
+
 
+
c) gro- (magnifying, without change in meaning)
+
 
+
● okos (eyes) – gro-okos (big eyes)
+
 
+
● gao (high, tall) – gro-gao (very high)
+
 
+
● danke (thank you) – gro-danke (thank you very much)
+
 
+
● pluvi (to rain) – gro-pluvi (to rain heavily)
+
 
+
d) -gron (magnifying, with some change of meaning)
+
 
+
● denta (tooth) – dentagron (tusk)
+
 
+
 
+
1.3. pre- (precedence)
+
 
+
● vidi (to see) – previdi (to foresee)
+
 
+
● nam (name) – prenam (first name)
+
  
● yeri (yesterday) – preyeri (the day before yesterday)
+
b) '''gro'''- (magnifying, without change in meaning): ''okos (eyes) – gro-okos (big eyes), gao (high, tall) – gro-gao (very high), danke (thank you) – gro-danke (thank you very much), pluvi (to rain) – gro-pluvi (to rain heavily)''
  
 +
1.3. '''pre'''- (precedence): ''vidi (to see) – previdi (to foresee), nam (name) – prenam (first name), yeri (yesterday) – preyeri (the day before yesterday)''
  
 
1.4. Negative attitude
 
1.4. Negative attitude
  
a) dus- ("bad, ill")
+
a) '''dus'''- ("bad, ill"): ''fauha (smell) – dusfauha (stink), trati (to trat) – dustrati (to mistreat)''
  
● fauha (smell) – dusfauha (stink)
+
b) '''shma'''- (disdain): ''kaval (horse) – shma-kaval (jade), skribi (to write) – shma-skribi (to scribble)''
  
● trati (to trat) – dustrati (to mistreat)
+
1.5. Similarity: -'''si''': ''kitaba-si (sort of a book)''
  
b) shma- (disdain):
 
  
● kaval (horse) – shma-kaval (jade)
 
  
● skribi (to write) – shma-skribi (to scribble)
+
=== 2. Noun ===
  
 +
2.1. Diminutive and magnifying:
  
1.5. Similarity: -si
+
a) -'''kin''' (diminutive, with some change of quality): ''barela (barrel) – barelakin (keg)''
  
● kitaba-si (sort of a book)
+
b) -'''gron''' (magnifying, with some change of meaning): ''denta (tooth) – dentagron (tusk)''
  
 +
2.2. Other:
  
2. Noun
+
a) -'''inka''' (particle): ''snega (snow) – sneginka (snowflake)''
  
a) -inka (particle)
+
b) -'''tot''' (a whole, a total): ''rishta (a relative) – rishtatot (all relatives, a clan)''
  
● snega (snow) – sneginka (snowflake)
+
c) '''yun'''- (a young): ''kota (cat) – yunkota (kitten)''
  
b) -tot (a whole, a total)
+
d) '''pra'''- (ancestor): ''opa (grandfather) – praopa (great-grandfather)'', ''lingwa (language) – pralingwa (parent language)''
  
● rishta (a relative) – rishtatot (all relatives, a clan)
+
e) -'''ista''' (relating to a doctrine or a profession): ''denta (tooth) – dentista (dentist)''
  
c) yun- (a young)
+
f) -'''nik''' (bearer of some characteristic feature): ''kitaba (book) – kitabnik (book lover)''
  
● kota (cat) – yunkota (kitten)
+
g) -'''dan''' (a container): ''nayu (butter) – nayudan (butterdish)''
  
d) pra- (ancestor)
+
h) '''fuy'''- (disgust): ''jen (person) – fuy-jen (nasty person)''
  
● opa (grandfather) – praopa (great-grandfather)
+
i) '''stif'''- (step-): - ''mata (mother) – stif-mata (stepmother)''
  
● lingwa (language) – pralingwa (parent language)
+
j) '''-inloo''' (indirect kinship) (colloq.): ''brata (brother) – brata-inloo (cousin)''
  
e) -ista (relating to a doctrine or a profession)
 
  
● denta (tooth) – dentista (dentist)
 
  
f) -nik (bearer of some characteristic feature)
+
=== 3. Adjective ===
  
● kitaba (book) – kitabnik (book lover)
+
3.1. '''bu'''- (negation, but not opposition): ''gran (big) – bugran (not big)''
  
g) -dan (a container)
+
3.2. -'''ish''' ("to some degree"): ''blan (white) – blanish (whitish), hao (good) – haoish (passable)''
  
● nayu (butter) – nayudan (butterdish)
 
  
h) fuy- (disgust)
 
  
● jen (person) – fuy-jen (nasty person)
+
=== 4. Verb ===
 
+
i) stif- (step-)
+
 
+
● mata (mother) – stif-mata (stepmother)
+
 
+
j) -inloo (indirect kinship) (colloq.)
+
 
+
● brata (brother) – brata-inloo (cousin)
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
3. Adjective
+
 
+
3.1. bu- (negation, but not opposition)
+
 
+
● gran (big) – bugran (not big)
+
 
+
3.2. -ish ("to some degree")
+
 
+
● blan (white) – blanish (whitish)
+
 
+
● hao (good) – haoish (passable)
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
4. Verb
+
  
 
4.1. Prefixes of aspect
 
4.1. Prefixes of aspect
  
a) en- (beginning)
+
a) '''en'''- (beginning): ''lubi (to love) – en-lubi (to fall in love)''
 
+
lubi (to love) – en-lubi (to fall in love)
+
 
+
b) ek- (one time or suddenly)
+
 
+
● krai (to cry) – ek-krai (to give a cry)
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
4.2. Opposite action
+
 
+
de(s)-
+
 
+
● sharji (to charge) – desharji (to unload, to discharge)
+
  
 +
b) '''ek'''- (one time or suddenly): ''krai (to cry) – ek-krai (to give a cry)''
  
 +
4.2. Opposite action: '''de'''(s)-: ''sharji (to charge) – desharji (to unload, to discharge)''
  
 
4.3. Other prefixes
 
4.3. Other prefixes
  
a) ras- (separation, division, or dispersion)
+
a) '''ras'''- (separation, division, or dispersion): ''dai (to give) – rasdai (to distribute, give to several people)''
 
+
dai (to give) – rasdai (to distribute, give to several people)
+
 
+
b) ri- (again)
+
 
+
● zwo (to do) – rizwo (to do anew)
+
 
+
c) ko- (together)
+
 
+
● senti (to feel) – ko-senti (sympathize (with), feel (for))
+
 
+
d) be- (changes the object)
+
 
+
● dumi (to think) – bedumi koysa (ponder over something)
+
  
● chori (to steal) – bechori koywan (to rob somebody)
+
b) '''ri'''- (again): ''zwo (to do) – rizwo (to do anew)''
  
 +
c) '''ko'''- (together): ''senti (to feel) – ko-senti (sympathize (with), feel (for))''
  
 +
d) '''be'''- (changes the object): ''dumi (to think) – bedumi koysa (ponder over something)'', ''chori (to steal) – bechori koywan (to rob somebody)''
  
 
== Prepositions ==
 
== Prepositions ==
Line 1,463: Line 1,158:
 
1.1. After a preposition there may be:
 
1.1. After a preposition there may be:
  
a) a noun (or a noun group)
+
a) a noun (or a noun group): ''fo (for) molya (wife) – for wife''
  
fo (for) molya (wife) – for wife
+
b) a verb: ''fo (for) miti (to meet) – in order to meet''
  
b) a verb
+
c) '''ke''' + phrase: ''fo (for) ke ("that") yu (you) samaji (to understand) – in order that you understand''
  
● fo (for) miti (to meet) – in order to meet
+
1.2. If necessary, the preposition may be put after the word. In this case there has to be the particle '''den''': ''den kinda (child) om (about) – about the child''
  
c) ke + phrase
 
  
● fo (for) ke ("that") yu (you) samaji (to understand) – in order that you understand
 
  
 +
=== 2. Simple prepositions ===
  
1.2. If necessary, the preposition may be put after the word. In this case there has to be the particle den:
+
2.1. belonging: '''de''': ''kitaba (book) de boy (boy) – the book of the boy''
  
● den kinda (child) om (about) – about the child
+
2.2. direction: '''a''': ''dai (to give) a me (I) – give me''
  
 +
2.3. purpose: '''fo''': ''dona (gift) fo yu (you) – a gift for you''
  
2. Simple prepositions
+
2.4. cause: '''por''': ''bu (not) lai (to come) por morba (desease) – not come because of a disease ''
  
2.1. belonging: de
+
2.5. topic, object: '''om''': ''dumi (to think) om molya (wife) – to think about the wife''
  
● kitaba (book) de boy (boy) – the book of the boy
+
2.6. with, without: '''kun, sin''': ''promeni (to walk) kun kinda (child) – to walk with the child, chay (tea) sin sukra (sugar) – tea without sugar''
  
2.2. direction: a  
+
2.7. doer, tool: '''bay''': ''chi (to eat) bay chiza (spoon) – to eat with a spoon'', ''gana (song) (skriben (written)) bay Vysotski – a song by Vesotski''
  
● dai (to give) a me (I) – give me
+
2.8. object of action: '''an''': ''kansa (glance) an dom (house) – a glance at the house''
  
● go (to go) a dom (house) – go home / go to the house
+
2.9. accordance: '''segun''': ''plei (to play) segun regula (rule) – to play according to the rules''
  
2.3. purpose: fo
+
2.10. means: '''via''': ''en-jan (to learn) habar (news) via visin (neighbor) – to learn the news from the neighbor''
  
● dona (gift) fo yu (you) – a gift for you
+
2.11. change, exchange: '''pur''': ''kupi (to buy) pur mani (money) – to buy with money, zwo (to do) pur amiga (friend) – to do instead of a friend''
  
● pren (to take) fo tri (three) minuta (minute) to take for three minutes
+
2.12. simultaneity, circumstances: '''al''': ''lagi (to lie) al lekti (to read) – to lie reading, al se (this) ta (he / she) en-stan *to stand up) - at this he / she stand up''
  
2.4. cause: por
+
2.13. material: '''aus''': ''kastela (castle) aus ramla (sand) – a castle (made) out of the sand''
  
● bu (not) lai (to come) por morba (desease) – not come because of a disease
+
2.14. characteristic feature: '''do''': ''okula (glasses) do surya (sun) – sunglasses''
  
2.5. topic, object: om
+
2.15. relation: '''relatem''': ''me (I) es (is / are/ am) neutrale (neutral) relatem sey (this) kwesta (question) – I'm neutral concerning this question''
  
● dumi (to think) om molya (wife) – to think about the wife
+
2.16. support: '''pro''': ''li (they) shwo (say, talk) pro guverna (government) – they talk pro government''
  
2.6. with, without: kun, sin
+
2.17. opposition: '''kontra''': ''kontra may (my) vola (will) – against my will''
  
● promeni (to walk) kun kinda (child) – to walk with the child
 
  
● chay (tea) sin sukra (sugar) – tea without sugar
 
  
2.7. doer, tool: bay
+
=== 3. Prepositions of correlations ===
  
● chi (to eat) bay chiza (spoon) – to eat with a spoon
+
3.1. replacement: '''inplas''': ''onpon (to put on) jupa (skirt) inplas panta (trousers) – to put on the skirt instead of trousers''
  
● gana (song) (skriben (written)) bay Vysotski a song by Vysotski
+
3.2. exception: '''exepte''': ''oli (all, everybody) exepte me (I) – everybody except me''
  
2.8. object of action: an
+
3.3. besides: '''krome''': ''lu (he) hev (to have) mucho (many) amiga (friend) krome me (I) – he has a lot of friend besides me''
  
● kansa (glance) an dom (house) – a glance at the house
+
3.4. concession: '''malgree''': ''nu (we) promeni (to walk) malgree pluva (rain) – we walk in spite of the rain''
  
2.9. accordance: segun
 
  
● plei (to play) segun regula (rule) – to play according to the rules
 
  
2.10. means: via
+
=== 4. Prepositions of situation ===
 
+
'' (the mark '''komo''' means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb)''
● en-jan (to learn) habar (news) via visin (neighbor) – to learn the news from the neighbor
+
 
+
2.11. change, exchange: pur
+
 
+
● kupi (to buy) pur mani (money) – to buy with money
+
 
+
● zwo (to do) pur amiga (friend) – to do instead of a friend
+
 
+
2.12. simultaneity: al
+
 
+
● lagi (to lie) al lekti (to read) – to lie reading
+
 
+
2.13. material: aus
+
 
+
● kastela (castle) aus ramla (sand) – a castle (made) out of the sand
+
 
+
2.14. characteristic feature: do
+
 
+
● okula (glasses) do surya (sun) – sunglasses
+
 
+
2.15. relation: relatem
+
 
+
● me (I) es (is / are/ am) neutrale (neutral) relatem sey (this) kwesta (question) – I'm neutral concerning this question
+
 
+
2.16. support: pro
+
 
+
● li (they) shwo (say, talk) pro guverna (government) – they talk pro government
+
 
+
2.17. opposition: kontra
+
 
+
● kontra may (my) vola (will) – against my will
+
 
+
 
+
3. Prepositions of correlations
+
 
+
3.1. replacement: inplas
+
 
+
● onpon (to put on) jupa (skirt) inplas panta (trousers) – to put on the skirt instead of trousers
+
 
+
3.2. exception: exepte
+
 
+
● oli (all, everybody) exepte me (I) – everybody except me
+
 
+
3.3. besides: krome
+
 
+
● lu (he) hev (to have) mucho (many) amiga (friend) krome me (I) – he has a lot of friend besides me
+
 
+
3.4. concession: malgree
+
 
+
● nu (we) promeni (to walk) malgree pluva (rain) – we walk in spite of the rain
+
 
+
 
+
4. Prepositions of situation (the mark komo means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb)
+
  
 
4.1. in limits:  
 
4.1. in limits:  
  
a) in (in)  
+
a) '''in''' (in): ''promeni (to walk) in shulin (forest) – to walk in a forest''
 
+
promeni (to walk) in shulin (forest) – to walk in a forest
+
 
+
b) inen (inside (komo))
+
 
+
● ye (there is) koysa (something) inen boxa (box) – there is something inside the box
+
 
+
4.2. outside: ausen (komo)
+
 
+
● may (my) oma (grandmother) jivi (lives) ausen urba (city) – my grandmother lives outside the city
+
  
4.3. near: bli (komo)
+
b) '''inen''' (inside (komo)): ''ye (there is) koysa (something) inen boxa (box) – there is something inside the box''
  
● skola (school) es (is) bli dom (house) – the school is near the house
+
4.2. outside: '''ausen''' (komo): ''may (my) oma (grandmother) jivi (lives) ausen urba (city) – my grandmother lives outside the city''
  
4.4. at the other side of: traen (komo)
+
4.3. near: '''bli''' (komo): ''skola (school) es (is) bli dom (house) – the school is near the house''
  
Es (is) tume (dark) traen winda (window). – It's dark outside (the window).
+
4.4. at the other side of: '''traen''' (komo): ''Es (is) tume (dark) traen winda (window). – It's dark outside (the window).''
  
 
4.5. in relation to other things:
 
4.5. in relation to other things:
  
a) inter (between)
+
a) '''inter''' (between): ''nu (we) es (is / are) inter skay (sky) e (and) arda (earth) – we are between the sky and the earth''
  
● nu (we) es (is / are) inter skay (sky) e (and) arda (earth) – we are between the sky and the earth
+
b) '''miden''' (among): ''miden amigas (friends) – among the friends''
  
b) miden (among)
+
4.6. linear sequence: '''bifoo''' (before), '''afte''' (after)
  
● miden amigas (friends) – among the friends
+
- ''In (in) sey (this) fila (line, queue) yu (you) es (is / are) bifoo me (I) e (and) afte ela (she). In this line you are before me and after
 +
her.''
  
4.6. linear sequence:
+
4.7. sequence in space: '''avanen''' (in front of (komo)), '''baken''' (behind (komo)): ''avanen kolona – in front of the column, baken dwar – behind the door''
 
+
a) bifoo (before)
+
 
+
b) afte (after)
+
 
+
● In (in) sey (this) fila (line, queue) yu (you) es (is / are) bifoo me (I) e (and) afte ela (she). – In this line you are before me and after
+
her.
+
 
+
● Bifoo chifan (to have meal) gai (should) woshi (to wash) handas (hands) e (and) afte chifan (to have meal) gai (should) shwo (say) "danke"
+
(thank you). – Before meal one should wash the hands, and after the meal one should say "thank you".
+
 
+
4.7. sequence in space:  
+
 
+
a) avanen (in front of (komo))
+
 
+
avanen kolona – in front of the column
+
 
+
b) baken (behind (komo))
+
 
+
baken dwar – behind the door
+
  
 
4.8. vertically:  
 
4.8. vertically:  
  
a) on (on)
+
a) '''on''' (on): ''Kitaba (book) es (is / are) on tabla (table). – The book is on the table.''
 
+
Kitaba (book) es (is / are) on tabla (table). – The book is on the table.
+
 
+
b) sobre (above), sub (under)
+
 
+
● Papagay (parrot) flai (to fly) sobre tabla (table), kota (cat) sidi (to sit) sub lemar (wardrobe). – The parrot flies over the table, the
+
cat sits under the wardrobe.
+
 
+
c) uuparen (up, at the upper part of (komo)), nichen (at the lower part of (komo))
+
  
● nichen kolina (hill) — at the bottom of the hill
+
b) '''sobre''' (above), '''sub''' (under): ''Papagay (parrot) flai (to fly) sobre tabla (table), kota (cat) sidi (to sit) sub lemar (wardrobe). – The parrot flies over the table, the cat sits under the wardrobe.''
  
fon (from) uuparen — from above
+
c) '''uuparen''' (up, at the upper part of (komo)), '''nichen''' (at the lower part of (komo)): ''nichen kolina (hill) — at the bottom of the hill, fon (from) uuparen — from above''
  
 
4.9. horizontally:  
 
4.9. horizontally:  
  
a) flanken (at the side of (komo))
+
a) '''flanken''' (at the side of (komo)): ''Flanken dom (house) ye (there is) garden (garden). – At the side of the house there is a garden.''
  
● Flanken dom (house) ye (there is) garden (garden). – At the side of the house there is a garden.
+
b) '''leften''' (at the left (komo)), '''desnen''' (on the right (komo)): ''In (in) korpa (body) kordia (heart) es (is / are) leften. – In the body the heart is at the left.''
  
b) leften (at the left (komo)), desnen (on the right (komo))
+
4.10. around: '''sirkum''' (komo): ''sirkum dom (house) – around the house''
  
● In (in) korpa (body) kordia (heart) es (is / are) leften. – In the body the heart is at the left.
+
4.11. opposition: '''kontra''' (komo): ''Teatra (theater) es (is / are) kontra sirkus (circus). – The theater is in front of the circus.''
  
4.10. around: sirkum (komo)
+
4.12. a typical place or feature: '''she''': ''Me (I) es (is / are) she me (I). – I am at mine.''
  
● sirkum dom (house) – around the house
 
  
4.11. opposition: kontra (komo)
 
  
● Teatra (theater) es (is / are) kontra sirkus (circus). – The theater is in front of the circus.
+
=== 5. Prepositions of movement ===
 
+
(the mark komo means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb)
4.12. a typical place or feature: she
+
 
+
● Me (I) es (is / are) she me (I). – I am at mine.
+
 
+
 
+
5. Prepositions of movement (the mark komo means that the preposition may be used independently, as an adverb)
+
  
 
5.1. direction to:  
 
5.1. direction to:  
  
a) a
+
a) '''a''': ''Me (I) zai ("continuous marker") go (to go) a dom (to the house). – I'm going (walking) to the house (home).''
  
● Me (I) zai ("continuous marker") go (to go) a dom (to the house). – I'm going (walking) to the house (home).
+
b) '''versu''': ''Treba (it is necessary) turni (to turn) versu dom (home). – One should turn towards home.''
  
b) versu
+
5.2. direction from: '''fon''': ''May (my) mata (mother) zai ("continuous marker") go (to go) fon dom (house) fo (for) miti (to meet) me (I). – My mother is walking from the house in order to meet me.''
  
● Treba (it is necessary) turni (to turn) versu dom (home). – One should turn towards home.
+
5.3. into: '''inu''' (komo): ''Bye (don't) stan (stand), go (go) inu dom (house). – Don’t stand, go into the house.''
  
5.2. direction from: fon
+
5.4. out of: '''aus''' (komo): ''Me (I) bu (not) mog (can) findi (to find) dao (way) aus shulin (forest). – I can't find the way out of the forest.''
  
● May (my) mata (mother) zai ("continuous marker") go (to go) fon dom (house) fo (for) miti (to meet) me (I). – My mother is walking from the  
+
5.5. through: '''tra''': ''Me (I) mog (can) vidi (to see) yu (you) tra winda (window). – I can see you through the window.''
house in order to meet me.
+
  
5.3. into: inu (komo)
+
5.6. along: '''along''': ''go (to go) along riva (river) – to go along the river''
  
● Bye (don't) stan (stand), go (go) inu dom (house). Don’t stand, go into the house.
+
5.7. vertically: '''uupar''' (up (komo)), '''nich''' (down (komo)): ''go (to go) uupar kolina (hill) – to go up the hill''
  
5.4. out of: aus (komo)
+
5.8. horizontally: '''avan''' (forward, ahead (komo)), '''bak''' (back (komo)): ''go (to go) bak kamina (road) – to go back along the road''
  
Me (I) bu (not) mog (can) findi (to find) dao (way) aus shulin (forest). – I can't find the way out of the forest.
+
5.9. impact: '''kontra''' (against): ''Me (I) apogi (lean) kontra mur (wall). – I lean against the wall.''
  
5.5. through: tra
+
5.10. past, by:''' pas''': ''Oni (one, they) go (go) pas e (and) bu (not) merki (to notice) nixa (nothing). – They are going past and don't notice anything.''
  
● Me (I) mog (can) vidi (to see) yu (you) tra winda (window). – I can see you through the window.
 
  
5.6. along: along
+
=== 6. Prepositions of time ===
  
● go (to go) along riva (river) – to go along the river
+
6.1. period: '''fo''': ''me (I) pren (to take) it (it) fo tri (three) dey (day) – I take it for three days''
  
5.7. vertically: uupar (up (komo)), nich (down (komo))
+
6.2. duration: '''duran''': ''duran gwer (war) – during the war''
  
● go (to go) uupar kolina (hill) – to go up the hill
+
6.3. beginning: '''depos''': ''Me (I) es (is / are / am) hir (here) depos klok (o'clock) sit (six). I've been here since six o'clock.''
  
5.8. horizontally: avan (forward, ahead (komo)), bak (back (komo))
+
6.4. limits: '''fon, til''': ''Me (I) majbur (to have to) bi (to be) hir (here) fon sabah (morning) til aksham (evening). – I have to be here from morning till evening.''
  
● go (to go) bak kamina (road) – to go back along the road
+
6.5. in, after: '''afte''':
  
5.9. impact: kontra (against)
+
- ''Me (I) ve ("future tense") bi (to be) hir (here) afte (after) klok (o'clock) sit (six). - I'll be here after six o'clock.''
  
Me (I) apogi (lean) kontra mur (wall). I lean against the wall.
+
- ''Me (I) lai (to come) afte dwa (two) minuta (minute). - I'll be back in two minutes.''
  
5.10. past, by: pas
+
6.6. by: '''bifoo'''
  
● Oni (one, they) go (go) pas e (and) bu (not) merki (to notice) nixa (nothing). – They are going past and don't notice anything.
+
- ''Treba (to have to) zwo (to do) se (this) bifoo klok (o'clock) sem (seven). - You have to do (to have been done) that before seven o'clock. ''
  
 +
- ''Bifoo chifan (to have meal) gai (should) woshi (to wash) handas (hands) e (and) afte chifan (to have meal) gai (should) shwo (say) "danke"
 +
(thank you). – Before meal one should wash the hands, and after the meal one should say "thank you".
  
6. Prepositions of time
 
  
6.1. period: fo
 
  
● me (I) pren (to take) it (it) fo tri (three) dey (day) – I take it for three days
+
=== 7. Prepositions of number ===
  
6.2. duration: duran
+
7.1. approximate: '''sirke''': ''sirke dwa (two) metra (meter) – about two meters ''
  
● duran gwer (war) – during the war
+
7.2. distribution per unit: '''per''': ''dwa (two) dolar (dollars) per jen (man) – two dollars per head''
  
6.3. beginning: depos
+
7.3. distribution into portions: '''po''': ''Olo (all, everything) es (is / are) po dwa (two) dolar (dollar). – Everything costs two dollars each piece.''
  
● Me (I) es (is / are / am) hir (here) depos klok (o'clock) sit (six). – I've been here since six o'clock.
 
  
6.4. limits: fon, til
 
  
● Me (I) majbur (to have to) bi (to be) hir (here) fon sabah (morning) til aksham (evening). – I have to be here from morning till evening.
+
=== 8. Preposition of general meaning: '''pa''' ===
  
6.5. in, after: afte
+
- ''pa fortuna (luck) – fortunately''
  
● Me (I) ve ("future tense") bi (to be) hir (here) afte (after) klok (o'clock) sit (six). - I'll be here after six o'clock.
+
- ''pa mur (wall) – at the wall ''
 
+
● Me (I) lai (to come) afte dwa (two) minuta (minute). - I'll be back in two minutes.
+
 
+
6.6. by: bifoo
+
 
+
Treba (to have to) zwo (to do) se (this) bifoo klok (o'clock) sem (seven). - You have to do (to have been done) that before seven o'clock.
+
 
+
 
+
7. Prepositions of number
+
 
+
7.1. approximate: sirke
+
 
+
● sirke dwa (two) metra (meter) – about two meters
+
 
+
7.2. distribution per unit: per
+
 
+
● dwa (two) dolar (dollars) per jen (man) – two dollars per head
+
 
+
7.3. distribution into portions: po
+
 
+
● Olo (all, everything) es (is / are) po dwa (two) dolar (dollar). – Everything costs two dollars each piece.
+
 
+
 
+
 
+
8. Preposition of general meaning: pa
+
 
+
● pa fortuna (luck) – fortunately
+
 
+
pa mur (wall) – at the wall  
+
 
+
● shwo (to say, to talk) pa ruski (Russian) – to speak Russian
+
  
 +
- ''shwo (to say, to talk) pa ruski (Russian) – to speak Russian''
  
  
 
== Conjunctions ==
 
== Conjunctions ==
 
  
 
1. Conjunctions unite: either words of the same class or whole clauses.
 
1. Conjunctions unite: either words of the same class or whole clauses.
  
1.1. simple:
+
=== 1.1. simple: ===
  
a) combination: e (and)
+
a) combination: '''e''' (and)
  
me (I) e yu (you) – me and you
+
- ''me (I) e yu (you) – me and you''
  
Me (I) janmog (to know how) rasmi (to draw) e gani (to sing). – I can draw and sing.
+
- ''Me (I) janmog (to know how) rasmi (to draw) e gani (to sing). – I can draw and sing.''
  
b) contrasting: bat (but)
+
b) contrasting: '''bat''' (but)
  
Me (I) janmog (to know how) rasmi (to draw), bat me (I) bu (not) janmog (to know how) gani (to sing). – I can draw, but I can't sing.
+
-'' Me (I) janmog (to know how) rasmi (to draw), bat me (I) bu (not) janmog (to know how) gani (to sing). – I can draw, but I can't sing.''
  
c) alternative: o (oda) (or)
+
c) alternative: '''o''' (oda) (or)
  
Pren (to take) sey (this) kitaba (book) o toy-la (that one). – Take this book or that one.
+
- ''Pren (to take) sey (this) kitaba (book) o toy-la (that one). – Take this book or that one.''
  
1.2. doubled:
 
  
a) both...and: i... i
+
=== 1.2. doubled: ===
  
Me (I) lubi (to love) i yu (you) i ela (she). – I love both you and her.
+
a) both...and: '''i .. i''': ''Me (I) lubi (to love) i yu (you) i ela (she). – I love both you and her.''
  
b) neither... nor: ni .. ni
+
b) neither... nor: '''ni .. ni''': ''Me (I) bu (not) yao (to want) vidi (to see) li (they), ni lu (he) ni ela (she). – I don't want to see them, neither him nor her.''
  
● Me (I) bu (not) yao (to want) vidi (to see) li (they), ni lu (he) ni ela (she). – I don't want to see them, neither him nor her.
+
c) either... or: '''oda .. oda''': ''Nu (we) sal (to be going to) hev (to have) oda son (son) oda docha (daughter). – We are going to have either a son or a daughter.''
  
c) either... or: oda .. oda
+
d) '''nau .. nau''': ''Ta (he / she) shwo (to say, to talk) nau lautem (loudly), nau kyetem (quietly). - He / She is talking now loudly, now quietly.''
  
● Nu (we) sal (to be going to) hev (to have) oda son (son) oda docha (daughter). – We are going to have either a son or a daughter.
 
  
d) nau .. nau
 
  
● Ta (he / she) shwo (to say, to talk) nau lautem (loudly), nau kyetem (quietly). - He / She is talking now loudly, now quietly.
+
=== 1.3. phrasal: ===
  
 +
a) condition: '''si''': ''Me (I) lai (to come) si yu (you) yao (to want). – I will come if you want.''
  
1.3. phrasal:
+
b) concession: '''obwol''': ''Ta (he / she) bu (not) lai (to come) obwol me (I) he ("past tense") pregi (to ask for). – He/she didn't come, though I had asked (her to come).''
  
a) condition: si
+
c) purpose: '''dabe''': ''Me (I) shwo (to say, to talk) dabe yu (you) samaji (to understand) me (I). – I speak so that you understand me.''
  
● Me (I) lai (to come) si yu (you) yao (to want). – I will come if you want.
+
d) cause: '''bikos''' (because), '''sikom''' (as, for)
  
b) concession: obwol
+
- ''Me (I) lai (to come) bikos yu (you) pregi (to ask for). – I come because you asks (for it).''
  
● Ta (he / she) bu (not) lai (to come) obwol me (I) he ("past tense") pregi (to ask for). – He/she didn't come, though I had asked (her to
+
- ''Sikom yu (you) bu (not) pregi (to ask for), me (I) bu (not) ve ("future tense") lai (to come). – As you don't ask (for it), I won't come.''
come).
+
  
c) purpose: dabe
+
e) sudden circumstance: '''ewalaa'''
 
+
● Me (I) shwo (to say, to talk) dabe yu (you) samaji (to understand) me (I). – I speak so that you understand me.
+
 
+
d) cause: bikos (because), sikom (as, for)
+
 
+
● Me (I) lai (to come) bikos yu (you) pregi (to ask for). – I come because you asks (for it).
+
 
+
● Sikom yu (you) bu (not) pregi (to ask for), me (I) bu (not) ve ("future tense") lai (to come). – As you don't ask (for it), I won't come.
+
 
+
e) sudden circumstance: ewalaa
+
 
+
● Me (I) zai ("continuous marker") somni (to sleep) ewalaa baji (to ring) gro (much). – I'm sleeping, and suddenly it rings a lot.
+
 
+
f) opposition: yedoh
+
 
+
● Me (I) koni (to know, to be acquainted)  yu (you) yedoh me (I) bu (not) koni (to know, to be acquainted) yur (your) sista (sister). – I know
+
you, however I don't know your sister.
+
  
 +
- ''Me (I) zai ("continuous marker") somni (to sleep) ewalaa baji (to ring) gro (much). – I'm sleeping, and suddenly it rings a lot.''
  
 +
f) opposition: '''yedoh'''
  
 +
- ''Me (I) koni (to know, to be acquainted)  yu (you) yedoh me (I) bu (not) koni (to know, to be acquainted) yur (your) sista (sister). – I know you, however I don't know your sister.''
  
  
 
== Numerals ==
 
== Numerals ==
 
  
 
1. Words denoting a number (with all such words the basic form of noun is used)
 
1. Words denoting a number (with all such words the basic form of noun is used)
  
1.1. basic numerals
+
=== 1.1. basic numerals ===
  
 
a) units
 
a) units
  
nol (0)
+
'''nol''' (0)
 
+
un (1), dwa (2), tri (3), char (4), pet (5),
+
  
sit (6), sem (7), ot (8), nin (9), shi (10)
+
'''un''' (1), '''dwa''' (2), '''tri''' (3), '''char''' (4), '''pet''' (5), '''sit''' (6), '''sem''' (7), '''ot''' (8), '''nin''' (9), '''shi''' (10)
  
 
a) tens
 
a) tens
  
dwashi (20), trishi (30), charshi (40) ... ninshi (90) (written as one word)
+
'''dwashi''' (20), '''trishi''' (30), '''charshi''' (40) ... '''ninshi''' (90) ''(written as one word)''
  
 
b) hundreds
 
b) hundreds
  
sto (100), dwasto (200), tristo (300) ... ninsto (900) (written as one word)
+
'''sto''' (100), '''dwasto''' (200), '''tristo''' (300) ... '''ninsto''' (900) ''(written as one word)''
  
c) thousand: mil (1000) (written in several words)
+
c) thousand: '''mil''' (1000) ''(written in several words)''
  
d) million: milion (1.000.000) (written in several words)
+
d) million: '''milion''' (1.000.000) ''(written in several words)''
  
 
e) numbers
 
e) numbers
  
shi-un (11), shi-dwa (12), shi-tri (13) ... shi-nin (19)
+
'''shi-un''' (11), '''shi-dwa''' (12), '''shi-tri''' (13) ... '''shi-nin''' (19)
  
dwashi-un (21), petshi-sem (57)
+
'''dwashi-un''' (21), '''petshi-sem''' (57)
  
 
22 957 = dwashi-dwa mil ninsto-petshi-sem
 
22 957 = dwashi-dwa mil ninsto-petshi-sem
  
  
1.2. Fractions: -fen
+
1.2. Fractions: -'''fen'''
  
un dwafen – 1/2
+
- ''un dwafen – 1/2''
  
sem shifen – 7/10
+
- ''sem shifen – 7/10; 0,7''
  
tri koma pet – 3,5
+
- ''tri koma pet – 3,5''
  
  
 +
=== Deriven worda ===
  
 
1.3. Adjectives:
 
1.3. Adjectives:
  
a) un-ney (the first), dwa-ney (the second), tri-ney (the third) ...
+
a) -'''ney''': un-ney (the first), dwa-ney (the second), tri-ney (the third) ...
  
b) unple (single), dwaple (double) ...
+
b) -'''ple''': unple (single), dwaple (double) ...
  
  
Line 1,912: Line 1,450:
 
1.4. Adverbs:
 
1.4. Adverbs:
  
a) un-nem (firstly), dwa-nem (secondly) ...
+
a) -'''nem''': un-nem (firstly), dwa-nem (secondly) ...
  
b) dwaplem (twice), triplem (three times as much) ...
+
b) -'''plem''': dwaplem (twice), triplem (three times as much) ...
  
  
Line 1,920: Line 1,458:
 
1.5. Nouns:
 
1.5. Nouns:
  
a) unka (one), dwaka (two) ...  
+
a) -'''ka''': unka (one), dwaka (two) ...  
  
b) haf (half), para (pair)
+
b) '''haf''' (half), '''para''' (pair)
  
  
1.6. Pronouns  
+
=== 1.6. Pronouns ===
  
a) mucho (many, much)
+
a) '''mucho''' (many, much)
  
b) pluri (several)
+
b) '''pluri''' (several)
  
c) kelke (some)
+
c) '''kelke''' (some)
  
d) idyen (a little, a few)
+
d) '''idyen''' (a little, a few)
  
e) shao (little, few)
+
e) '''shao''' (little, few)
  
Me (I) vidi (to see) mucho (many, much) flor (flower). – I see a lot of flowers.
+
- ''Me (I) vidi (to see) mucho (many, much) flor (flower). – I see a lot of flowers.''
  
Ta (he/she) hev (to have) shao (little, few) kalam (pencil). – He/she has few pencils.
+
- ''Ta (he/she) hev (to have) shao (little, few) kalam (pencil). – He/she has few pencils.''
  
f) zuy mucho = maiste, zuy shao = minim
+
f) zuy mucho = '''maiste''', zuy shao = '''minim'''
  
Lu (he) hev (to have) minim bonbon (sweet). – He has the smallest amount of sweets.
+
- ''Lu (he) hev (to have) minim bonbon (sweet). – He has the smallest amount of sweets.''
  
g) kwanto (how many. how much)
+
g) '''kwanto''' (how many. how much)
  
h) tanto (so, to such extent)
+
h) '''tanto''' (so, to such extent)
  
  
2. Date
+
=== 2. Date ===
  
2.1. days of the week: numeral + di
+
2.1. days of the week: numeral + '''di'''
  
 
a) undi (Monday)
 
a) undi (Monday)
Line 1,995: Line 1,533:
 
l) desemba = mes-shi-dwa (December)
 
l) desemba = mes-shi-dwa (December)
  
dey trishi-un de mes-shi-dwa – the 31th of December
+
- ''dey trishi-un de mes-shi-dwa – the 31th of December''
  
dey 21 mes 9 yar 1945 – 21.9.1945
+
- ''dey 21 mes 9 yar 1945 – 21.9.1945''
  
  
3. O'clock: klok
+
3. O'clock: '''klok'''
 
+
● klok dwa – two o'clock
+
 
+
● klok sem sin pet – five before seven o'clock
+
 
+
klok sit e haf – half past six
+
  
 +
-''klok dwa – two o'clock''
  
 +
- ''klok sem sin pet – five before seven o'clock''
  
 +
- ''klok sit e haf – half past six''
  
 
== Exclamations ==
 
== Exclamations ==
  
  
1. Greetings
+
=== 1. Greetings ===
  
1.1. Swasti! – (universal greeting) Be happy! Let the peace be on the Earth!
+
1.1. '''Swasti'''! – (universal greeting) Be happy! Let the peace be on the Earth!
  
 
1.2. Compound greetings
 
1.2. Compound greetings
  
a) Hao sabah! – Good morning!
+
a) '''Hao sabah'''! – Good morning!
  
b) Hao dey! – Good afternoon!
+
b) '''Hao dey'''! – Good afternoon!
  
c) Hao aksham! – Good evening!
+
c) '''Hao aksham'''! – Good evening!
 +
 
 +
d) '''Hao nocha'''! – Good night!
  
d) Hao nocha! – Good night!
 
  
 
1.3. Simple greetings
 
1.3. Simple greetings
  
a) Salam! Heloo! Ola! – Hello!
+
a) '''Salam! Heloo! Ola!''' – Hello!
 +
 
 +
b) '''Namastee! Nihao!''' – Hello! How do you do!
  
b) Namastee! Nihao! – Hello! How do you do!
 
  
 
1.4. Bye
 
1.4. Bye
  
a) Chao! – Bye!
+
a) '''Chao'''! – Bye!
  
b) Adyoo! – Good bye!
+
b) '''Adyoo'''! – Good bye!
  
  
2. Politeness words
+
=== 2. Politeness words ===
  
 
2.1. Thankfulness
 
2.1. Thankfulness
  
a) Danke! Shukran! – Thank you!  
+
a) '''Danke! Shukran'''! – Thank you!  
  
b) Danke gro! – Thank you very much!
+
b) '''Danke gro'''! – Thank you very much!
 +
 
 +
c) '''Bi hao!''' – You are welcome!
  
c) Bi hao! – You are welcome!
 
  
 
2.2 Excuse
 
2.2 Excuse
  
Skusi! – Excuse me!
+
'''Skusi'''! – Excuse me!
 +
 
  
 
2.3. Request
 
2.3. Request
  
a) Plis – please (when asking)
+
a) '''Plis''' – please (when asking)
 
+
b) Bi karim – be kind
+
 
+
2.4. Swaagat! – Welcome!
+
  
 +
b) '''Bi karim''' – be kind
  
 +
2.4. '''Swaagat!''' – Welcome!
  
3. Interjections
 
  
a) Afsos! – Alas!
+
=== 3. Interjections ===
  
b) Kamon! – Come on!
+
a) '''Afsos'''! – Alas!
  
c) wel well
+
b) '''Kamon'''! Come on!
  
 +
c) '''wel''' – well
  
 +
{{Lingwa de Planeta}}
  
[[Category:Gramatika]]
+
[[Category:Gramatika de Lingwa de Planeta]]
 +
[[Category:Lingwa de Planeta pa inglish]]

Latest revision as of 16:12, 3 July 2014

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